Doug's Thinking Space

...a space to think in a non-linear fashion\n

[[Welcome]]\n[[Quotations]]\n[[To Do]]\n[[Thoughts]]\n[[Thesis]]\n[[Lesson Planning]]\n[[Wiki Formatting]]\n

*[[Constructivism]]\n*[[Critical Theory]]\n*[[Culture Change]]\n*[[Curriculum - Problems With Current]]\n*[[Definitions]]\n*[[Edubloggers]]\n*[[The End of Schools]]\n*[[History]]\n*[[ICT - General]]\n*[[ICT - Potential]]\n*[[ICT - Advantages]]\n*[[ICT - Disadvantages]]\n*[[ICT - Effect on Learner]]\n*[[ICT - Effect on Teacher]]\n*[[ICT - Implementation]]\n*[[ICT - Literacy]]\n*[[ICT - Paradigm Shift]]\n*[[ICT - Skeptics]]\n*[[Learning]]\n*[[Memes]]\n*[[Organizational Change]]\n*[[Personalising Learning]]\n*[[The Purpose of Education]]\n*[[Teaching]]\n*[[Technical Terms & Definitions]]\n*[[UK Government - speeches & policy documents]]\n\n*[[Motivational Quotations]]\n\n\n

Salomon & Almod (1998) - constructivist beliefs r.e. learning - which is a process,\n<<<\n"whereby learners construct their own knowledge by applying their existing knowledge and mental skills to novel incoming information, constructing their own meanings as they go along."\n<<<\nquoted in Okan, 'Edutainment: is learning at risk?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:3, 2003), p.256\n\n----\n\nRoberts (1998) - socio-constructivism:\n<<<\n"Good learning is a process of socially based, active co-construction of contextualized knowledge and webs of relations among its nodes."\n<<<\nquoted in Okan, 'Edutainment: is learning at risk?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:3, 2003), p.256\n\n----\n\nPressures of cost & time in education sector have led to version of the constructivist paradigm, which makes "a virtue out of a necessity."\n\nRushby, 'Editorial: where are the new paradigms?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:3, 2005), p.360\n\n----\n

''Basic formatting:''\n| !To get | !Type this |h\n| ''Bold'' | {{{''Bold''}}} |\n| ==Strikethrough== | {{{==Strikethrough==}}} |\n| __Underline__ | {{{__Underline__}}} (that's two underline characters) |\n| //Italic// | {{{//Italic//}}} |\n| Superscript: 2^^3^^=8 | {{{2^^3^^=8}}} |\n| Subscript: a~~ij~~ = -a~~ji~~ | {{{a~~ij~~ = -a~~ji~~}}} |\n| @@highlight@@ | {{{@@highlight@@}}} |\n\n''Images:''\n{{{\n[img[title|filename]]\n[img[filename]]\n[img[title|filename][link]]\n[img[filename][link]]\n}}}\nImages can be included by their filename or full URL. It's good practice to include a title to be shown as a tooltip, and when the image isn't available. An image can also link to another tiddler or or a URL\n[img[Romanesque broccoli|fractalveg.jpg][http://www.flickr.com/photos/jermy/10134618/]]\n{{{\n[img[Fractal vegetable|fractalveg.jpg]]\n[img[This is shown as a tooltip|http://example.com/image.jpg]]\n[img[http://example.com/image.jpg]]\n[img[http://example.com/image.jpg][ExampleDotCom]]\n}}}\n\n''Monospaced text:''\n{{{\nDone like this!\n}}}\n\n''Subheadings:''\n!Header 1\n!!Header 2\n!!!Header 3\n!!!!Header 4\n!!!!!Header 5\n\n''Links''\nYou can link to [[other sites|http://teaching.mrbelshaw.co.uk]] or [[ordinary tiddlers|TiddlyWiki]] with ordinary words, without the messiness of the full URL appearing. Edit this tiddler to see how. You can also LinkToFolders.\n\n''Bullets:''\n* Just add an asterisk\n* at the beginning of a line.\n** If you want to create sub-bullets\n** start the line with two asterisks\n*** And if you want yet another level\n*** use three asterisks\n\n''Numbered List:''\n# Use a single '#' at the start of each line\n# and the tiddler will automatically\n# start numbering your list.\n## If you want a sub-list\n## within any bullets\n## add two '#'s at the start of the lines.\n# When you go back to a single '#'\n# the main numbered list will start up\n# where it left off.\n\n''Horizontal Rules:''\nYou can divide a tiddler into\n----\nsections by typing four dashes on a line by themselves\n\n''Tables:''\n*sample:\n|!th1111111111|!th2222222222|\n|>| colspan |\n| rowspan |left|\n|~| right|\n|bgcolor(#a0ffa0):colored| center |\n|caption|c\n\n''Blockquotes:''\nYou can have multiple levels of Block Quotes. Just edit this tiddler to see how it's done.\n\n>level 1\n>level 1\n>>level 2\n>>level 2\n>>>level 3\n>>>level 3\n>>level 2\n>level 1\n\n''Popups:''\n<<tag formatting>>

[[Welcome]]\n[[To Do]]

[img[I Can't Stop Thinking!|http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/kahane/Images/images_teaching/Can't%20stop%20thinking%20cartoon.gif]]\n\nThis is a space for me to get things down quickly in a way which isn't necessarily fully formed but at the same time is accessible to me pretty much wherever I am. Sometimes I use areas as a place for lesson <<tag planning>> and a repository for useful <<tag quotations>> that I come across. It's especially useful as a repository of information for my Ed.D. <<tag thesis>>...\n\nThis part of teaching.mrbelshaw.co.uk uses [[ccTiddly|http://cctiddly.sourceforge.net/]], a server-side implementation of [[TiddlyWiki|http://www.tiddlywiki.com/]] :-)\n

!Thesis\n\n!!Thoughts to expand upon\n*What is the average age of a teacher in the UK?\n*Do notions of 'digital literacy' favour the white middle-classes?\n\n!!Articles to find\n*Green & Bigum (1993) - 'Aliens in the classroom' (//Australian Journal of Education//, vol.37, no.2, pp.119-41)\n*Green, B. (1996) - 'Literacy/technology/learning: notes and issues' (unpublished discussion paper, but might find references)\n*Lemke, J. (1993) - 'Education, cyberspace and change' (//The Arachnet Electronic Journal on Virtual Culture//, vol.1, no.1)\n\n!!To get done\n*Look on DUO for previous examples of non-empirical Ed.D. thesis proposals\n*Critically engage with literature in lit. review rather than just being descriptive\n*Find out r.e. Habermas & 'lifeworld' -> learning to make a living or learning to make a life?\n*Contrast literature with government view (skills for 21st century)\n*Is the Labour government correct that //specific// skills are needed in the 21st century workplace? Should this impact schools?\n*Is 'digital literacy' real or imagined? What is 'literacy'?\n*If 'digital literacy' exists, how can it be measured?\n*How should we respond to technology?\n*Explain that interest = what it means to be 'educated' and 'literate' in 21st century, but areas very large. My interest = use of technology and how it fits into broader questions. Focusing, therefore, on 'digital literacy'\n*'Literacy' is at the heart of education (competence, etc.), but what do we //mean// by it?\n*Conclusion -> schools don't always know why they're there -> confusion\n\n__Possible structure__\n#Possible structure of argument:\n#What is literacy?\n#Literacy = dynamic\n#Why does literacy change (reflecting society vs. something 'out there' to be revealed)\n#Government policy still informed by Victorian model of schooling.\n#Emergence of term 'digital literacy'.\n#What did it mean to be 'literate' before and after a new technology (e.g. printing press)\n#'Functional' aspect of literacy -> is 'digital literacy' just another aspect of this?\n#What do people mean when they talk of being 'literate'?\n#What measures and tests are used for gauging whether someone is literate/'digitally literate'?\n#It makes sense for the government to want to improve 'literacy' -> but what do we mean by this?\n#Go back to literature -> what do we mean by 'digital literacy'?\n#Are there/can there be consistent measures for 'digital literacy'?\n\n*Try to define pre-industrial literacy, then consider whether 'digital literacy' is fundamentally different. How can it be shown to be different?\n*Make international comparisons -> curriculum (competency-based, etc.)\n*Look at Larry Cuban & Neil Postman's arguments against technology\n*Is 'digital literacy' economically and educationally important (difficult to distinguish in govt. pronouncements)\n*Tackle assumption that using computers = important, therefore 'digital literacy' is important -> counter-example of Nissan factory, Burger King etc.)\n*Literacy = powerful concept -> at heart of education since ancient times -> appear to be a numer of lines of argument as to how to measure or define 'digital literacy'\n*Major implications for schools -> digital literacy impossible to dismiss because linked to powerful notions of 'literacy' and 'technology'\n*Is 'digital literacy' a 'skill'? Does it threaten the teaching profession?\n\n\n

*Normal meaning of 'critical' = 'includined to criticize severely and unfavourably' (p.3)\n*Word 'critic' comes from Greek //kritikos// which 'denotes the ability, or even licence, to discern or to judge.' (p.3)\n*Most basic sense of Critical Theory = "principles upon which criticism might responsibly proceed." (p.4)\n*Word 'criticism' comes from Greek //krinein// meaning 'to decide' (p.7)\n8Greek //theoria// means 'way of seeing' or 'setting in view' (p.32)\n\nJ. Phillips, //Contested Knowledge: a guide to critical theory// (London, 2000)\n\n----\n\nWe construct frameworks to make sense of the world:\n<<<\n"Frameworks are constituted by habits of thought and action, the ways, and indeed the styles, we adopt to be confident and more or less secure in our relation to the world and to others."\n<<<\nJ. Phillips, //Contested Knowledge: a guide to critical theory// (London, 2000), p.11\n\n----\n\nKant began process culminating in Critical Theory:\n<<<\n"The key source for today's use of the term Critical Theory is the work of the German eighteenth-century philosopher Immanuel Kant."\n<<<\n*Uses 'critical' to describe his mature philosophy\n\nJ. Phillips, //Contested Knowledge: a guide to critical theory// (London, 2000), p.11\n\n----\n\nCriticism puts **all** grounds for knowledge into crisis:\n\nKant: \n<<<\n"Our age is the age of criticism, to which everything must be subjected. The sacredness of religion and the authority of legislation, are by many regarded as grounds of exemption from the examination of this tribunal. But, if they own they are exempted, they become the subjects of just suspicion, and cannot lay claim to sincere respect, which reason accords only to that which has stood the test of a free and public examination."\n<<<\nJ. Phillips, //Contested Knowledge: a guide to critical theory// (London, 2000), p.12\n\n----\n\nNames in development of Critical Theory:\n\n*Kant\n*Hegel\n*Marx\n*Nietzsche\n\nJ. Phillips, //Contested Knowledge: a guide to critical theory// (London, 2000), p.13\n\n----\n\nPlato (//The Republic//) - "We must let our destination be decided by the winds of the discussion."\n\nJ. Phillips, //Contested Knowledge: a guide to critical theory// (London, 2000), p.42\n\n----\n\nHerbert Marcuse - //Philosophy and Critical Theory// (1937) - criticizes philosophy's inability to offer a truly critical approach to the actual development of the world:\n<<<\n"For at its conclusion [philosophy] arrives at nothing that did not exist in itself 'at the beginning'. The absence of concrete development appeared to this philosophy as the greatest benefit."\n<<<\n~-Critical Theory "derives its progressive tendencies from its involvement with the present social process."\n\nP.U. Hohendahl, 'From the Eclipse of Reason to Communicative Rationality and Beyond' (in P.U. Hohendahl & J. Fisher (eds.), //Critical Theory: current state and future prospects// (Oxford, 2001)), p.5-6\n\n----\n\nCritical Theory = a metaphor and a development of a way of thinking:\n<<<\n"Critical Theory is a metaphor for a certain kind of theoretical orientation which owes its origin to Kant, Hegel and Marx, its systemization to Horkheimer and his associates at the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt, and its development to successors, particularly to the group led by Jürgen Habermas, who have sustained it under various redefinitions to the present day."\n<<<\n*'Critical Theory' = both general (critical element that began with Kant) and specific (orientation towards philosophy) as a term.\n\nD.M. Rasmussen, 'Critical Theory and Philosophy' (in D.M. Rasmussen (ed.), //The Handbook of Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1996)), p.11\n\n----\n\nCritical Theory is interested in ''action'' - c.f. Marx: "Philosophers have always interpreted the world, the point is to change it."\n\nD.M. Rasmussen, 'Critical Theory and Philosophy' (in D.M. Rasmussen (ed.), //The Handbook of Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1996)), p.11\n\n----\n\nTerm 'critical theory' owes its definition more than anything else to essay called 'Traditional and Critical Theory' by Max Horkhiemer in 1937. (p.16)\n\n*Danger of 'reification' - experience conforms to generalizations (according to theories) - generalizations tend to conform to ideas present in minds of researchers. (p.18)\n*Problem = theory conforms to researchers' ideas and not to experience.\n\nD.M. Rasmussen, 'Critical Theory and Philosophy' (in D.M. Rasmussen (ed.), //The Handbook of Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1996))\n\n----\n\nInfluences:\n\n{{table columns="3" cellpadding="1" cells="Individual;Time Period;Concept;Hegel;French Revolution;Freedom;Marx;Industrial Revolution;Class Struggle;Frankfurt School;Inter-war years;Rise of Fascism"}}\n\nD.M. Rasmussen, 'Critical Theory and Philosophy' (in D.M. Rasmussen (ed.), //The Handbook of Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1996), p.21\n\n----\n\nAim of Critical Theory = 'enlightenment'. Problem = leads to alienation.\n\nD.M. Rasmussen, 'Critical Theory and Philosophy' (in D.M. Rasmussen (ed.), //The Handbook of Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1996), p.23\n\n----\n<<<\n"[Horkheimer] argued against the equation of fallability with relativity. To grant that there is no final and conclusive theory of reality of which we are capable is not at all to abandon the distinction between truth and error. We make that distinction in relation to the "available means of knowledge." The claim that a belief is true must stand the test of experience and practice in the present. knowing that we are fallible, that what stands the test today may well fail to do so tomorrow or in the next century does not prevent us, or even exempt us, from making and defending claims to truth here and now. The abstract recognition that all our beliefs are open to connection does not make a rationally warranted belief any less warranted, any less rational."\n<<<\nD.C. Hoy & T. McCarthy, //Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1994), p.10\n\n----\n\nHorkheimer - social researchers are engaged in socially-situation forms of social action. They need to be conscious of this and think through the implications.\n\nD.C. Hoy & T. McCarthy, //Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1994), p.14\n\n----\n\nCritical theory interested in //real life://\n<<<\n"Unlike 'traditional' theory... critical social theory takes as topics of investigation the reflexivity of social research, the division of labor... and its social functions; that is, it studies, 'what theory means in human life'."\n<<<\nD.C. Hoy & T. McCarthy, //Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1994), p.15\n\n----\n\nCritical Theory takes into account the origin and application of facts, etc.\n<<<\n"Critical theory is concerned precisely with the historical and social genesis of the facts it examines and with the social context in which its results will have their effects. It stresses that social research is itself a form of social interaction in which the objects of knowledge are potentially subjects of the very same knowledge."\n<<<\nD.C. Hoy & T. McCarthy, //Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1994), p.16\n\n----\n<<<\n"...critical social theory expressly aims at becoming a factor in social change by becoming part of the self-consciousness of oppressed social groups. It does not consider the purposes it serves to be external to the context of enquiry."\n<<<\nD.C. Hoy & T. McCarthy, //Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1994), p.16\n\n----\n\nPostmodernists criticise and reject 'grand narrative' but they can still be relevant and useful:\n<<<\n"Critical theorists can develop and deploy practically interested, theoretically informed, general accounts in a fallibilistic and open manner, that is, without claiming closure. The point is to view big pictures and grand narratives as //ongoing accomplishments//. They are never finished, but have to be constructed, deconstructed, and reconstructed in ever-changing circumstances."\n<<<\nD.C. Hoy & T. McCarthy, //Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1994), p.19\n\n----\n<<<\n"There is no extramundane standpoint from which we can set our social world as a whole at a distance."\n<<<\nD.C. Hoy & T. McCarthy, //Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1994), p.21\n\n----\n<<<\n"The key to avoiding both a pure "insider's" or participant's standpoint, and a pure "outsider's" or observers standpoint is... to adopt the perspective of a critical-reflective participant. As there is no God's-eye point of view available to us, we can do no better than move back and forth between the different standpoints, playing one off against the other."\n<<<\nD.C. Hoy & T. McCarthy, //Critical Theory// (Oxford, 1994), p.81\n\n----\n<<<\n"Critical theory is social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or explaining it."\n<<<\nWikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory - accessed: 27/02/06)\n\n----\n\nFrankfurt School:\n<<<\n"According to these theorists, a “critical� theory may be distinguished from a “traditional� theory according to a specific practical purpose: a theory is critical to the extent that it seeks human emancipation, “to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them� (Horkheimer 1982, 244)."\n<<<\nStanford Encylopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory - accessed: 27/02/06)\n\n----\n\nCritical Theory different from traditional theories:\n<<<\n"Critical Theorists have long sought to distinguish their aims, methods, theories, and forms of explanation from standard understandings in both the natural and the social sciences. Instead, they have claimed that social inquiry ought to combine rather than separate the poles of philosophy and the social sciences: explanation and understanding, structure and agency, regularity and normativity. Such an approach, Critical Theorists argue, permits their enterprise to be practical in a distinctively moral (rather than instrumental) sense."\n<<<\nStanford Encylopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory - accessed: 27/02/06)\n\n----\n\nHorkheimer - critical theory must have three qualities concurrently:\n\n*explanatory\n*prescriptive\n*normative\n<<<\n"That is, it must explain what is wrong with current social reality, identify the actors to change it, and provide both clear norms for criticism and achievable practical goals for social transformation."\n<<<\nStanford Encylopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory - accessed: 27/02/06)\n\n----

Children use tools of their culture:\n<<<\n"Like other builders, children appropriate to their own use materials they find about them, most saliently the models and metaphors suggested by the surrounding culture."\n<<<\nS. Papert, //Mindstorms: children, computers, and powerful ideas// (London, 1980), p.19\n\n----\n\nCultural tools need to be given to learners (c.f. Vygotsky - children are capable of 'incidental learning based on their own natural mental functions):\n<<<\n"One of the most important challenges to an educational system is to empower the young with the intellectual tools of the culture."\n<<<\nN. Davis, et al, 'Can quality in learning be enhanced through the use of IT?' (in B. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.16\n\n----\n\nCultures = socially-constructed realities. How cultures change therefore 'depends on how one perceives and enacts culture.'\n\nBerger & Luckman (1966) - cited in D. Meyerson & J. Martin, 'Cultural Change: an integration of three different views' (in A. Harris, N. Bennett & M. Preedy (eds.), //Organizational Effectiveness and Improvement in Education//;OUP, 1997), p.31\n\n----\n\n3 different paradigmitic views r.e. cultural change:\n\n''Paradigm 1'' - hope & promise that leadership can initiate and control organization-wide cultural changes.\n\n''Paradigm 2'' - attempts to manage cultural change have localized impact (both intentional & unintentional) - can't predict organization-wide.\n\n''Paradigm 3'' - all cultural members 'inevitably and constantly change and are changed by the cultures they live in.'\n\nD. Meyerson & J. Martin, 'Cultural Change: an integration of three different views' (in A. Harris, N. Bennett & M. Preedy (eds.), //Organizational Effectiveness and Improvement in Education//;OUP, 1997), p.40\n\n----\n\nNeed to ''do'' something with computers:\n<<<\n"Simply handing out computers will not bring about... changes to the school culture, no matter how desirable the changes are."\n<<<\nA. McFarlane, '...and where might we end up?' (in A. McFarlane (ed.), //Information Technology and Authentic Learning: realising the potential of computers in the primary classroom//;London, 1997), p.175\n\n----\n\nJohn Donne (//The Anatomie of the World//) - change of paradigm:\n<<<\n"And the new Philosophy cals all in doubt,\nThe Element of fire is quite put out;\nThe Sun is lost, and th' earth and no man's wit,\nCan well direct him, where to looke for it.\n\n'Tis all in peeces, all cohaerance gone."\n<<<\nquoted in W.E. Doll, Jr., //A Post-modern pespective on curriculum// (London, 1993), p.28\n\n----\n\nWe are in midst of revolution r.e. technology in education:\n<<<\n"We are in the first phases of a profound revolution in technology whose consequences for teaching and learning are enormous. Our culture will never be the same again."\n<<<\nE.F. Provenzo, Jr., A. Brett G.N. McCloskey, //Computers, Curriculum, and Cultural Change: an introduction for teachers// (London, 1999), p.245\n\n----\n\nCastells (1996) - our culture will change due to ICTs:\n<<<\n"The emergence of a new electronic communication system characterised by its global reach, its integration of all communication media, and its potential interactivity is changing and will change forever our culture."\n<<<\n*defines culture as our historically-produced systems of beliefs & codes - mediated through communication\n*ICT = new way of communicating\n\nquoted in I. Snyder, 'Hybrid Vigour': Reconciling the verbal and the visual in electronic communication (in A. Loveless & V. Ellis (eds.), //ICT, Pedagogy and the Curriculum: subject to change//; London, 2001), p.44\n\n----\n\nBuckingham (1993) - 'high' culture is not the culture of the majority. Purpose of education? Need to allow the world to make sense to them:\n<<<\n"If the curriculum is to equip young people to understand and participate in their society, it must invariably being by acknowledging the cultural experiences of the majority."\n<<<\n*e.g. TV, computers, mobile phones\n\nquoted in C. Beavis, 'Computer games, culture and curriculum' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen: taking literacy into the electronic era//; London, 1988), p.242\n\n----\n\nUse of ICT and changing culture leading to change in notion of an 'educated person':\n<<<\n"The ubiquitous presence and utility of ICT in modern life are having a significant impact on the way we live, and even on the notion of an educated person. It has led to the concept of the knowledge society - sometimes also called the learning society or information society. There is a widespread awareness that these developments have profound implications for education, and that schools must change, but as yet little detailed consideration of the extent of the change needed and the advantages that ICT can bring. The growth of the knowledge society and the pervasiveness of the technology represent a major challenge //and// a major opportunity for education."\n<<<\nOECD, //Learning to Change: ICT in Schools// (2001), p.9\n\n----\n\nSociety looking to schools to provide skills needed:\n<<<\n"Modern society is increasingly looking to schools to foster independent and creative thinkers who can confidently solve problems and manage their own learning throughout their lives, the very qualities which ICT supremely is able to promote."\n<<<\nOECD, //Learning to Change: ICT in Schools// (2001), p.11\n\n----\n\nSchools need to change to gain benefits from ICT use:\n<<<\n"Powerful tensions exist between traditional curricula - based on well-defined content and rules for students to learn and be able to reproduce - and the open, skills-based, student-centred approaches supported by ICT. Dominant curricular and organisational patters in school were not designed for the Internet age, and often inhibit its effective use. ICT offers some gain for traditional curriculum delivery, but its full educational potential cannot be realised without radical changes in school structures and methodologies. As ICT gains acceptance in schools, it may become the driver and the facilitator of the necessary curriculum change."\n<<<\nOECD, //Learning to Change: ICT in Schools// (2001), p.15\n\n----\n\nSmith, Sachs & Chant (1988) - young people are "culturally positioned by the pervasiveness of computer-based and media technologies" (author) - these technologies are producing a "postmodern consciousness of multiple perspectives" - need for "technology literacy" to live in a "semiotic society".\n\ncited in J. Johnson-Eilda, 'Living on the surface: learning in the age of global communication networks' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen: taking \nliteracy into the electronic era//; London, 1998), p.211-2\n\n----\n\nKinsman (1991) - analogies between present historical period & shifts from agricultural to industrial production and culture in 18th & 19th century England:\n<<<\n"New technologies intended to simplify or streamline tasks become events in themselves." (author)\n<<<\ncited in J. Johnson-Eilda, 'Living on the surface: learning in the age of global communication networks' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen: taking literacy into the electronic era//; London, 1998)\n\n----\n\nGreen & Bigum (1993) - young people growing up in a different culture:\n<<<\n"... a fundamental issue is the significance of what is more specifically and appropriately understood as 'techno-popular culture', conceived as more and more the distinctive semiotic space which young people will increasingly inhabit as their natural environment, their proper realm, and the site par excellence of their sovereignty."\n<<<\nquoted in J. Johnson-Eilda, 'Living on the surface: learning in the age of global communication networks' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen: taking literacy into the electronic era//; London, 1998), p.223\n\n----\n\nMajor theme of new culture = 'social connectedness':\n<<<\n"Common culture is not (as 'post-modern' culture is held to be) chaotic or meaningless even though it is invisible or baffling to outside formal eyes. Its inherently democratic impulses, its variety and complexity, above all its social connectnedness, show us much more than does the formal 'modernist' or 'post-modernist' elite debate about how 'ordinary' identities creatively and 'commonly' articulate with, and are developed through, the restless, dramatic and contradictory themes of modernization."\n<<<\nP. Willis, //Common Culture// (OUP, 1990), p.140\n\n----\n\nContradictions in gap "between cultural richness and possibility on one side and no work or boring work and lack of cash on the other." Need new view of human beings:\n<<<\n"The crucial lesson for us to draw here is that we need a different view of human beings. If not, the young will soon hit us over the head with one."\n<<<\nP. Willis, //Common Culture// (OUP, 1990), p.145\n\n----\n\nReporting on changing teacher attitudes during ACOT (Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow) initiative:\n<<<\n"Throughout their careers, teachers had taken the role of expert in the classroom. But technology-rich classrooms undermined that role as some students quickly became more knowledgeable than both their peers and their teachers in using particular computer applications or hardware. Eventually, teachers not only accepted students' expertise but capitalized on and expanded the roles of student experts in their classrooms, relinquishing their emphasis on teacher-directed activities. Moreover, they discovered that students who had been perceived as slow or reluctant learners often blossomed when given an alternate means for displaying their abilities."\n<<<\nI. Haymore Sandholtz & C. Ringstaff, 'Teacher Change in Technology-Rich Classrooms' (in C. Fisher, D.C. Dwyer & K. Yocam (eds.), //Education and Technology: reflections on computing in classrooms// (San Francisco, 1996), p.283-4\n\n----\n\nSÃ¥ljo (1999) - learners use cultural tools:\n<<<\n"A fundamental assumption in a socio-cultural understanding of human learning is precisely this: learning is always learning to do something with cultural tools (be they intellectual and/or theoretical). This has the important implication that when understanding learning we have to consider that the unit we are studying is people in action using tools of some kind."\n<<<\nquoted in Sutherland & InterActive Project Team, //Designs for Learning: ICT and knowledge in the classroom// (Computers & Education, 43, 2004), p.6\n\n----\n\nApple (1991) - educational technology is loaded with cultural values:\n<<<\n"The new technology is not just an assemblage of machines and their accompanying software. It embodies a //form of thinking// that orients a person to approach the world in a particular way."\n<<<\nquoted in Okan, 'Edutainment: is learning at risk?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:3, 2003), p.257\n\n----\n\nMorrisett (1996) - society creates technology, but technology also creates society.\n\nOkan, 'Edutainment: is learning at risk?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:3, 2003), p.257\n\n----\n\nChanging culture and perceptions leading to a new teaching profession:\n<<<\n"The changes in society, among pupils' perceptions, and the evolution of new technologies are leading to a new profession for teachers."\n<<<\nB. Cornu, 'New technologies: integration into education' (in D. Watson & D. Tinsley (eds.), //Integrating Information Technology into Education//; London, 1995), p.8\n\n----\n\nBenjamin (1971) - analogy showing schools need to change:\n<<<\n"...a prehistoric tribe... decided to introduce systematic education for its children. The curriculum was specifically designed to meet particular survival needs in the local environment and so included such subjects as sabre-tooth-tiger-scaring-with-fire. But the climate of the region changes and the sabre tooth tigers perish. Attempts to change the curriculum to meet new survival needs encounter stern opposition."\n<<<\nquoted in J. Tiffin & L. Rajasingham, //The Global Virtual University// (London & New York, 2003), p.117\n\n----\n\nSmith, et al (1971):\n<<<\n"The curriculum is interwoven with the social fabric that sustains it."\n<<<\nquoted in J. Tiffin & L. Rajasingham, //The Global Virtual University// (London & New York, 2003), p.117\n\n----\n\nDiSessa (1988) - prediction of 'educated citizen' in 2020:\n<<<\n"an educated citizen in the year 2020 will be more valuable as an employee because he or she will be able to produce more builders of theory, synthesizers, and inventors of strategy than valuable as an employee who manages facts."\n<<<\nquoted in Demetriadis, et al, ' Cultures in negotiation': teachers' acceptance/resistance attitudes considering the infusion of technology into schools' (//Computers & Education//, 41, 2003), p.20\n\n----\n\nSvanaes (2000) - for understanding, need shared assumptions, etc.\n<<<\n"For language users to be able to comprehend the words of another language user, they need a shared background of experience. This includes culture, corporeality, sensory system, social life, etc. Wittgenstein uses the term //life form// for this. To him, language users of different life forms can never truly communicate."\n<<<\nquoted in Demetriadis, et al, ' Cultures in negotiation': teachers' acceptance/resistance attitudes considering the infusion of technology into schools' (//Computers & Education//, 41, 2003), p.34-35\n\n----\n\nReason for implementing ICT in education - question seems to be:\n<<<\n"If technology helps us work, entertains us, is increasingly tied into the parameters of our existence generally, then why not invite it into the institutions of education, the places where culture itself is both sustained and revised?"\n<<<\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1007\n\n----\n\nPeople becoming producers, not just consumers, of information:\n<<<\n"...individuals increasingly come to see themselves (and are expected to become) not only... consumers but also... producers of information for use by others." (Heylighen, 2002)\n<<<\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1010\n\n----\n\nBrand:\n<<<\n"Communications media are so fundamental to society that when their structure changes, everything is affected."\n<<<\nKenway, 'The Information Superhighway and Post-modernity' (//Comparative Education//, 32:2, 1996), p.219\n\n----\n\nTechnology has a destabilizing effects - students have more time to gain technological competence than teachers.\n\nKapitzke, 'Information Technology as Cultural Capital' (//Education and Information Technology//, 5:1, 2000), p.58\n\n----\n\nMetaphor of workers building cathedral - technician (building wall), craftsman (building cathedral), visionary (glorifying God)\n\nConlon, 'Visions of Change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology// 31:2, 2000), p.109\n\n----\n\nComputers are the ulimate postmodern technology - "devoid of intrinsic commitment but programmable for any task."\n\nConlon, 'Visions of Change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology// 31:2, 2000), p.111\n\n----\n\nImportance of //procedural// knowledge:\n<<<\n"We have more information being presented to us than we can possibly encode and remember. Our personal abilities are far exceeded by the amount of information created in the modern worlsd, and so ours has become a problem of deciding which information sources to attend to, and which information systems to use when we do not know something. In order to make use of an existing store of information we need to understand how the information within it is organised, and how to access it."\n<<<\nJ.D.M. Underwood & G. Underwood, //Computers and Learning: helping children acquire thinking skills// (Oxford, 1990), p.60\n\n----\n\nSecretary of State for Education (1999):\n<<<\n"We stand of the brink of a new age. Familiar certainties and old ways of doing things are disappearing. Jobs are changing and with them the skills needed for the world of tomorrow. In our hearts we know we have no choice but to prepare for this new age, in which the key to success will be the education, knowledge and skills of our people."\n<<<\nquoted in - T. Imison & P. Taylor, //Managing ICT in the Secondary School//, (Oxford, 2001), p.124\n\n----\n\nNegroponte (1998):\n<<<\n"Like air and drinking water, being digital will be noticed only by its absence, not its presence."\n<<<\nG.F. Hoban, //Teacher Learning for Educational Change: a systems thinking approach// (OUP, 2002), p.117\n\n----\n\nNo choice but to join in 'ICT revolution':\n<<<\n"Abstention is not really an option since the ICT revolution is only one aspect of a deeper and broader cultural revolution that is changing Western culture from modern (or industrial) to postmodern (or post-industrial). Leaving educational systems outside this process would mean subjecting them to marginalization or even extinction."\n<<<\nA. Aviram, 'From "Computers in the Classroom" to mindful radical adaptation by education system to the emerging cyber culture' (//Journal of Educational Change//, 1, 2000), p.333\n\n----\n\nAdults who tell kids to turn off their computer games just don't get it:\n<<<\nYou tell me to turn off the game. Because you're staring at the box. I can't turn off the game. Because the game ain't in the box.\n\nSo, stop making technology such a big deal. You want laptops. I got a cell phone. And you still don't get it.\n\n'cause no matter what you spend your money and professional development time on, for us it's about being //inside// the game, inside the story, in //real-time//. \n\nEverything else is over-priced and ready for recycling.\n<<<\nChristian Long in [["The Future of Learning" Manifesto|http://thinklab.typepad.com/think_lab/2007/01/the_future_of_l.html]]

<<<\n"The suggestion that there might come a day when schools no longer exist elicits strong responses from many people. There are many obstacles to thinking clearly about a world without schools. Some are highly personal. Most of us spent a larger fraction of our lives going to school than we care to think about... The concept of a world without school is highly dissonant with out experiences of our own lives. Other obstacles are more conceptual. One cannot define such a world negatively, that is by simply removing school and putting nothing in its place. Doing so leaves a thought vacuum thatthe mind has to fill one way or another, often with vague but scary images of children 'running wild', 'drugging themselves' or 'making life impossible for their parents'. Thinking seriously about a world without schools cll for elaborated models of the non-school activities in which children would engage."\n<<<\nPapert (1993) - quoted in C. Abbott, //ICT: changing education// (London, 2001), p.4\n\n----\n\nDangers of thinking one technology will change everything:\n<<<\n"Books will soon be obsolete in the schools. Scholars will be instructed through the eye. It is possible to teach every branch of human knowledge with the motion picture. Our school system will be completely changed in ten years."\n<<<\n//New York Dramatic Mirror//, 1913 - quoted in C. Abbott, //ICT: changing education// (London, 2001), p.5\n\n----\n\nLearning does not come primarily from teaching:\n<<<\n"A... major illusion on which the school system rests is that most learning is the result of teaching. Teaching, it is true, may contribute to certain kinds of learning under certain circumstances. But most people acquire most of their knowledge outside school, and in school only in so far as school, in a few rich countries, has become their place of confinement during an increasing part of their lives."\n<<<\nIllich (1973) - quoted in C. Abbott, //ICT: changing education// (London, 2001), p.29\n\n----\n\nSchools can be changed, despite faults:\n<<<\n"The institution we call 'school' is what it is because we made it that way. If it is irrelevant, as Marshall McLuhan says; if it shields children from reality, as Norbert Wiener says; if it does not develop intelligence, as Jerome Bruner says; if it is based on fear, as Carl Rogers says; if it punishes creativity and independence, as Edfar Friedenberg says; if, in short, it is not doing what needs to be done, it can be changed; it must be changed."\n<<<\nPostman & Weingartner (1971) - quoted in C. Abbott, //ICT: changing education// (London, 2001), p.46\n\n----\n\nLearning in a school environment is not natural (e.g. of real 'natural' learning = healthy relationship between mother and baby, or getting to know another person):\n<<<\n"The institution of school, with its daily lesson plan, fixed curriculum, standardized tests, and other such paraphernalia, tends constantly to reduce learning to a series of technical acts and the teacher to the role of a technician."\n<<<\nS. Papert, //The Children's Machine: rethinking school in the age of the computer// (London, 1993)\n\n----\n\nPiaget - the aim should be to teach without a general curriculum:\n<<<\n"But 'teaching without curriculum' does not mean spontaneous, free-form classrooms or simply 'leaving the child alone.' It means supporting children as they build their own intellectual structures with materials drawn from the surrounding culture."\n<<<\nS. Papert, //Mindstorms: children, computers, and powerful ideas// (London, 1980), p.31-2\n\n----\n\nClassrooms not best places to learn:\n<<<\n"Classrooms are not ideal learning environments; they are working compromises in mass education systems"\n<<<\n- Having to deal with classroom dynamics makes teachers "managers of learners" rather than "managers of learning".\n\nN. Davis, et al, 'Can quality in learning be enhanced through the use of IT?' (in B. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.21\n\n----\n\nPapert (1984):\n<<<\n"There won't be schools in the future... I think the computer will blow up the school. That is, the school defined as something where there are classes, teachers running exams, people structured in groups by age, following a curriculum - all of that. The whole system is based on a set of structural concepts that are incompatible with the presence of the computer... But this will happen only in communities of children who have access to computers on a sufficient scale."\n<<<\nL. Cuban, //Teachers and Machines: the classroom use of technology since 1920// (London, 1986), p.72\n\n----\n\nTechnology should end schools:\n<<<\n"Technology can and should end schooling as we know it. For educators, there is not even really a choice: eitehr we tag along as closely as we can, or we lost individuality and nationality in a global marketplace."\n<<<\nD. Blacker & J. McKie, 'Information and Communication Technology' (in N. Blake, et al. (eds.), //The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Education//; Oxford, 2003), p.235\n\n----\n\nLearners learning outside the classroom:\n<<<\n"In the world outside the classroom the young consumer is gradually being educated in ways a school does not begin to recognise. Using entertainment technology, the young user can develop hand-eye co-ordination, spatial relations, graphical awareness, parallel reading from non-linear scripts, multi-line plots and problem solving."\n<<<\nJ. Sanger, 'ICT, the demise of UK schooling and the rise of the individual learner' (in A. Loveless & V. Ellis (eds.), //ICT, Pedagogy and the Curriculum: subject to change//; London, 2001), p.10\n\n----\n\nPapert - metaphor of boats and planes r.e. ICT:\n<<<\n"Back in the 50s the United States was somewhat embarrassed by the fact that the fastest transatlantic ocean liners beonged to European countries... So American resources of technology and money were mobilised and led to triumph. They made the fastest boat in the world, the S.S. United States. In the very same year the first commercial jet plan flew and it became totally irrelevant which boat could travel faster across the Atlantic... Are we trying to perfect an obsolete system or are we trying to make an educational jet plane?"\n<<<\nin OECD, //Learning to Change: ICT in Schools// (2001), p.112\n\n----\n\nAs younger teachers enter the teaching profession who are closer to the tech. culture, likely to challenge the current definition of 'school'.\n\nJ. Johnson-Eilda, 'Living on the surface: learning in the age of global communication networks' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen: taking literacy into the electronic era//; London, 1998), p.226\n\n----\n\nMass schooling losing legitimacy:\n<<<\n"As mass schooling loses its legitimacy, educational understanding seems less about grand theories of teaching and learning or indeed 'society' and more to do with how individual children create identities with a plethora of cultural materials and, indeed, with how 'we' come to know ourselves as constrained or liberated."\n<<<\nJ. Johnson-Eilda, 'Living on the surface: learning in the age of global communication networks' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen: taking literacy into the electronic era//; London, 1998), p.230\n\n----\n\nEducation likely to be marginalized if doesn't adapt to new cultures:\n<<<\n"The field of education is likely to come under even more intense pressure. It will be further marginalized in most people's experience by common culture. In so far as educational practices are still predicated on traditional liberal humanist lines and on the assumed superiority of high art, they will become almost totally irrelevant to the real energies and interests of most young people and no part of their identity formation."\n<<<\nP. Willis, //Common Culture// (OUP, 1990), p.147\n\n----\n\nNeed new approach to education:\n<<<\n"We need an altogether new approach to education. Let us give the deveil of work what is due, let us pay necessary homage to the goddess of technology, but then why not use the rest of humanity's currency for the widest possible imaginative exchanges and sensuous purposes."\n<<<\nP. Willis, //Common Culture// (OUP, 1990), p.147\n\n----\n\nIdea of 'school' will only die if society gives up on its idea of 'society'.\n\nConlon, 'Visions of Change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology// 31:2, 2000), p.114\n\n----\n\nRevolution in educaiton will reverse roles of home and school:\n<<<\n"Children will go to school because they need to play with other children, to acquire social skills, engage in sports, go on field trips, fiddle with machinery, perform experiments, dance, put on plays, etc. In short, home will become the place to go to learn - school, where you go to play."\n<<<\nT. Stonier & C. Conlin, //The Three C's: children, computers, communication// (Chichester, 1985), p.31\n\n----\n<<<\n"Practically, the most meaningful development accompanying the ICT revolution has taken place outside schools as reflected in the impressive leap in the number, both absolute and relative, of students who study at home and do not belong to any formal educational system. In the United States the number rose from a few tens of thousands in the 1980s to one million in 1994, or about two percent of the total number of children of compulsory education age (Aiex, 1994), to somewhere between two and four millions at the end of the ’nineties. A similar leap has taken place in other countries including Australia, Canada and the U.K. (Meighan, 1997)."\n<<<\nA. Aviram, 'From "Computers in the Classroom" to mindful radical adaptation by education system to the emerging cyber culture' (//Journal of Educational Change//, 1, 2000), p.334-5\n\n----\n<<<\n"Breaking the glass ceiling is no small matter, however. It amounts to pulling the carpet from under the most essential characteristics of the\nprevailing system of schooling. If students and teachers were allowed to perform a large part of their learning activities flexibly from distance and at varying times; if greater emphasis were to be placed on non-disciplinary, research-oriented learning based on authentic problems; and if, on the organizational level, there was to be flexibility in the definition of roles such that a teacher for a certain issue/problem can also choose to deal with a totally different subject or to become a learner, and a learner if satisfying relevant requirements can become a teacher – will there be anything left of the modern educational system as we have known it since the late nineteenth century?\n<<<\nA. Aviram, 'From "Computers in the Classroom" to mindful radical adaptation by education system to the emerging cyber culture' (//Journal of Educational Change//, 1, 2000), p.341\n\n----\n\nNot just end of schools as we know them, but end of society as we know it:\n<<<\n"The ICT revolution is... a defining revolution that is all encompassing, irreversibly affecting every aspect of our lives, for good and for bad. It also threatens the most basic assumptions of schooling. It threatens the linear, authoritarian, disciplinary structure of knowledge, the distinction between valid knowledge and superstitions, the importance of literacy and of the written text, all of which have been basic to the\nwestern liberal curriculum over the past 2500 years and to the modern educational system in the last century. It rapidly erodes the advantage that adults have over children in “life experience�, wisdom and understanding of the world – another basic presupposition of western education since its earliest origins. It extinguishes the importance of a shared geographical place and time structure for the transmission or production of knowledge – the most basic characteristic of modern educational systems in the past century.\n<<<\nA. Aviram, 'From "Computers in the Classroom" to mindful radical adaptation by education system to the emerging cyber culture' (//Journal of Educational Change//, 1, 2000), p.344\n\n----

Computers can 'concretize' and personalize the formal:\n<<<\n"Seen in this light, [the computer] is not just another powerful educational tool, it is unique in providing us with the means of addressing what Piaget and other see as the obstacle which is overcome in the passage from child to adult thinking."\n<<<\nS. Papert, //Mindstorms: children, computers, and powerful ideas// (London, 1980), p.21\n\n----\n\nStrong statement r.e. importance of ICT\n<<<\n"If our society is to adjust and avoid turmil, alienation and the threat of disintegration, then the impact and potential of IT must be at everyone's fingertips."\n<<<\nCharles Desforges, in preface to B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997)\n\n----\n\nICT for personalized learning:\n<<<\n"Within a system of mass schooling there has to be a tension between what is ideal for each individual and what is possible for all. It is perhaps in alleviating this tension that information technology tools may be able to make a difference."\n<<<\nN. Davis, et al, 'Can quality in learning be enhanced through the use of IT?' (in B. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.15\n\n----\n\nKozma (1991) - features of ICT which are important r.e. learning:\n\n(i) Speed of processing\n(ii) Produralisation of info (operating according to rules)\n(iii) Transformative capabilities (text-to-speech, data to graph, etc.)\n(iv) Help novices build mental models as experts do.\n\nN. Davis, et al, 'Can quality in learning be enhanced through the use of IT?' (in B. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.17\n\n----\n\nICT skills learnt more quickly in context rather than in isolation:\n<<<\n"IT skills are likely to be more easily learned in the context of some other pursuit, focused more on open-ended tasks in which individuals can engage at their own speed; in this context learning to use information technology tools has an obvious purpose which provides the motivation to learn."\n<<<\nN. Davis, et al, 'Can quality in learning be enhanced through the use of IT?' (in B. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.23\n\n----\n\nICT can help support learners in the 'zone of proximal development" (Vygotsky)\n\nN. Davis, et al, 'Can quality in learning be enhanced through the use of IT?' (in B. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.25\n\n----\n\nICTs can make learning environment more interesting and 'real':\n<<<\n"An important use of technology is its capacity to create new opportunities for curriculum and instruction by bringing real-world into the classroom for students to explore and solve. Technology can help create an active environment in which students not only solve problems, but also find their own problems."\n<<<\nJ.D. Bransford, A.L. Brown, R.R. Cocking (eds.), //How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School// (Washington D.C., 1999), p.195\n\n----\n\nNegroponte - labelling of certain learners may stem from teaching methods and tools used:\n<<<\n"We may be a society with far fewer learning-disabled children and far more teaching-disabled environments than currently perceived. The computer changes this by making us more able to reach children with different learning and cognitive styles."\n<<<\nquoted in E.F. Provenzo, Jr., A. Brett G.N. McCloskey, //Computers, Curriculum, and Cultural Change: an introduction for teachers// (London, 1999), p.73\n\n----\n\nUsing ICT can lead to new learning opportunities/objectives not available before:\n<<<\n"There is a real sense in which increasing familiarity with the use of ICT can foster the development of new activities. Over time, this can lead to insightful new uses for software, which in turn, leads teachers to develop new learning objectives. Rewards of this kind are won through a maturity of experience and reflection on using ICT in teaching."\n<<<\nL. Newton, 'Management and the use of ICT in subject teaching' (in Selwood, Find & O'Mahony (eds.), //Management of Education in the Information Age: the role of ICT//; 2003), p.18\n\n----\n\n3 main reasons for inclusion of ICT in education:\n\n(i) ''Economic:'' perceived needs of a present and future economy - need for personnel with ICT skills. 'There is a widespread expectation on the global scale that those nations successfully embracing the information age will benefit economically.'\n\n(ii) ''Social:'' ICT = a 'life skill' in same way as literacy and numeracy - 'digital literacy' (requirement & right) - 'As usage of ICT becomes more extensive across society, wider benefits will also flow - better links between home and school, greater parental involvement in student progress, and greater scope for schools and other educational institutions to play an inter-active part in community life and development.'\n\n(iii) ''Pedagogical:'' role of ICT in teaching & learning - move from 'drill-and-practice' programme to increasing 'breadth and richness of learning, not least through the topicality and realism that the new resources can bring.' - also ''motivating''\n\nOECD, //Learning to Change: ICT in Schools// (2001), p.10-11\n\n----\n\nPapert - one of the advantages of ICT = not knowing what kind of advantages it will bring:\n<<<\n"Education and the popular view reinforce one another on the informational side of this technology. Our view of what the technology is going to do in education becomes dominated by an informational aspect, which is a dangerously bad thing to do. The real value of this technology is to open up a vast, unprecedented, and up to now unimaginable, range of activities."\n<<<\nin OECD, //Learning to Change: ICT in Schools// (2001), p.110\n\n----\n\nTechnology about thought processes not just about hardware and software:\n<<<\n"For educational purposes, technology is not only about hardware and software, but also, and importantly, about procedures, processes, structure, systems, and patterns and use. In educational terms, technology is about means towards certain ends, having largely to do with thought processes, information flows and human communication."\n<<<\nC. Wright (ed.), //Issues in Education & Technology: politcy guidelines and strategies// (Commonwealth Secretariat, London, 2000), p.23\n\n----\n\nBransford, Brown & Cocking (1999) - ICTs can extend human capabilities for interaction:\n<<<\n"What has not yet been fully understood is that computer-based technologies can be powerful pedagogical tools - not just rich sources of information, but extensions of human capabilities and contexts for social interactions supporting learning. The process of using technology to improve learning is never solely a technical matter, concerned only with properties of educational hardware and software. Like a textbook or any other cultural object, technology resources for educaiton function in a social environment, mediated by learning conversations with peers and teachers."\n<<<\nquoted in Sutherland, & InterActive Project Team, //Designs for Learning: ICT and knowledge in the classroom// (Computers & Education, 43, 2004), p.5\n\n----\n\nBecta (2002):\n<<<\n"Schools that were judged by OfSTED to have very good ICT resources had better achievement than schools with poor ICT."\n<<<\n*true across all socio-economic groups.\n\nquoted in Reynolds, Treharne & Tripp, //ICT - the hopes and the reality// (British Journal of Educational Technology, 34:2, 2003), p.152\n\n----\n\nGuile (1998) - ICT can lead to 'tremendous gains':\n<<<\n"ICT can lead to tremendous gains in student learning, for example, significant improvements in examination or statutory test performance, development of broader forms of social, cultural and intellectual capability."\n<<<\nReynolds, Treharne & Tripp, //ICT - the hopes and the reality// (British Journal of Educational Technology, 34:2, 2003), p.153\n\n----\n\nFerrate (2000) - use of technology is more important than the technology itself:\n<<<\n"It is not the technology itself that is important, but using the best technology available in the service of one idea: to enhance and globalize learning."\n<<<\nJ. Tiffin & L. Rajasingham, //The Global Virtual University// (London & New York, 2003), p.20\n\n----\n\nInventors of the printing press, Xerox machine & telephone didn't forsee the applications of their inventions for popular use.\n\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1009\n\n----\n\nWe don't always know what technology is 'good for' at a given point in time:\n<<<\n"The social history of technology suggests that we do not always know what technology is 'good for' at any particular time or in any particular setting - the practices that people develop around it are varied and not always predictable, but they do represent what users of these technologies have found valuable at that place and time."\n<<<\n*(Not necessarily the //best// technologies that are widely adopted - e.g. Betamax vs. VHS)\n\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1009-10\n\n----\n\nICTs allow us to work with information in ways not previously possible - 7 dimensions of this:\n\n1. ''Fluidity'' - time & place become irrelevant for accessing information and communication: "In education, fluidity of information is both an opportunity and a threat" (end of lectures, etc.) - no canon or cultural core of information (p.1011)\n\n2. ''Replicability'' - information easily copied and passed on.\n\n3. ''Mutability'' - "The proposition that there is no place for a canon in contemporary life is a truism for postmodernists, but a joke for many scientists (Fish, 1996). Schools in the future may have to teach a form of textual connoisseurship that is partly aesthetic and partly forensic." (p.1012)\n\n4. ''Selectability'' - problem of being done for others (*e.g. power of being in top 10 of Google search results*)\n\n5. ''Idiosyncrasy'' - experience of education likely to be different becuase of highly-customisable nature of ICTs: "In turn, this may reduce the sense of and opportunity for common experience that individuals have as they learn." (p.1013)\n\n6. ''Independence'' - learners able to structure and personalise their learning.\n\n7. ''Agency'' - "Education, then, increasingly becomes not to be about mastering information that someone else determines to be significant but rather about how to make of oneself an agent, someone able both to consume but (more unusually) to produce information as an agent of culture. Acting in this way is so engaging that it, potentially, becomes not work but 'fun'... which is surely a new thing for education." (p.1013)\n\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005)\n\n----\n\nPapert (1980) - computers = extremely flexible:\n<<<\n"The computer is the Proteus of machines. Its essence is its universality, its power to simulate. Because it can take on a thousand forms and can serve a thousand functions, it can appeal to a thousand tastes."\n<<<\nT. Imison & P. Taylor, //Managing ICT in the Secondary School//, (Oxford, 2001), p.60\n\n----\n

Need to temper technologically-inspired innovators who have short historical focus when looking at education with 'long, humanistic' view:\n<<<\n"The current ferment about computers, combined with an evangelistic and uncritical enthusiasm, makes it necessary to be vigilant. There is already some evidence that the takeup of the computer has added haste to an existing movement which sees education as a process of training in technical skills and employment related functionalism."\n<<<\nS. Dunn & V. Morgan, //The Impact of the Computer on Education: a course for teachers// (London, 1987), p.8-9\n\n----\n<<<\n"Effective use of information technology, like any other tool, has to be acquired. You have to learn how to use a knife to cut a notch in a stick."\n<<<\n*computers are complex tools and may be difficult to justify time spent learning __how__ to use ICT rather than learning __with__ ICT\n\nN. Davis, et al, 'Can quality in learning be enhanced through the use of IT?' (in B. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.22\n\n----\n\nICT can be used in boring ways:\n<<<\n"teachers can use information technology to create a new set of mundane tasks which negate the opportunities for quality learning."\n<<<\n*effective use depends on the teacher\n\nN. Davis, et al, 'Can quality in learning be enhanced through the use of IT?' (in B. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.25\n\n----\n\nIntroduction of computers into classrooms = like US policy of 'de-institutionalizing' the mentally-ill in 1960s and 70s - drugs insufficient to cope with psychoses, etc. - rise in homeless 'street people':\n<<<\n"Many of those patients who left state hospitals never should have done so. We psychiatrists saw too much of the old snake pit, saw too many people who shouldn't have been there and we overreacted. The result is not what we intended, and perhaps we didn't ask the questions that should have been asked when developing a new concept, but psychiatrists are human too, and we tried out damndest."\n<<<\nFormer director of National Institute of Mental Health, quoted in L. Cuban, //Teachers and Machines: the classroom use of technology since 1920// (London, 1986), p.101-2\n\n----\n\nA.N. Whitehead - Danger of pupils learning a myriad of disconnected 'inert' ideas:\n<<<\n"Let the main ideas that are introduced into a child's education be few and important, and let them be thrown into every combination possible. The child should mke them his own, and should understand their application here and now in the circumstances of his actual life."\n<<<\n(Could probably also be quoted in //support// of ICT...)\n\nquoted in M. Bonnett, 'Computers in the Classroom: some values issues' (in A. McFarlane (ed.), //Information Technology and Authentic Learning: realising the potentials of computers in the primary classroom//; London, 1997), p.155\n\n----\n\nICT is not a neutral tool - used in the service of hegemonic power:\n<<<\n"Elites not only use technology as a club, but also to conceal tht there is any clubbing going on at all. It provides the perfect weapon, effective yet invisible. And the more value-neutral we regard it, the more invisible it becomes."\n<<<\nD. Blacker & J. McKie, 'Information and Communication Technology' (in N. Blake, et al. (eds.), //The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Education//; Oxford, 2003), p.241\n\n----\n\nTechnological needs of the economy need techologically literate labour force? - could lead to 'proletarianization' and deskilling of jobs - recent study of new technologies on future labour market:\n<<<\n"...while many more workers will be using computers, automated office equipment, and other sophisticated technical devices in their jobs, the increased use of technology may actually reduce skills and discretion required to perform many jobs."\n<<<\nM. Apple, 'Is the New Technology part of the solution or part of the problem in education?' (in A. Darder, M. Baltodano & R.D. Torres, The Critical Pedagogy Reader; London, 2003), p.443\n\n----\n\nHow can we be sure that ICTs are a good thing for education?:\n<<<\n"It is more than a little important that we question whether the wagon we have been asked to ride on is going in the right direction. It's a long walk back."\n<<<\nM. Apple, 'Is the New Technology part of the solution or part of the problem in education?' (in A. Darder, M. Baltodano & R.D. Torres, The Critical Pedagogy Reader; London, 2003), p.456\n\n----\n\nBowers (1988) - most important question is r.e. ICT's neutrality:\n<<<\n"...the most fundamental question about hte new technology... has to do with whether the technology is neutral; that is, neutral in terms of accurately representing, at the level of the software program, the domains of the real world in which people live."\n<<<\nquoted in E.F. Provenzo, Jr., A. Brett G.N. McCloskey, //Computers, Curriculum, and Cultural Change: an introduction for teachers// (London, 1999), p.7\n\n----\n\nTeachers and pupils can be distracted by superficiality of ICT:\n<<<\n"[The computer] can contribute much to improving classroom instruction. But it can also be a limiting technology that ultimately distracts teachers and students from their primary purpose by imposing a set of assumed values that do not advance the purpose of instruction or individual and group development."\n<<<\n(What are these 'assumed values'?)\n\nE.F. Provenzo, Jr., A. Brett G.N. McCloskey, //Computers, Curriculum, and Cultural Change: an introduction for teachers// (London, 1999), p.14-15\n\n----\n\nPace of change has psychological effect - the tyranny of what Joyce (1999) calls 'an anticipatory state of constant nextness'.\n\nI. Snyder, 'Hybrid Vigour': Reconciling the verbal and the visual in electronic communication (in A. Loveless & V. Ellis (eds.), //ICT, Pedagogy and the Curriculum: subject to change//; London, 2001), p.42\n\n----\n\nPapert - arguments against ICT adoption are not good ones:\n<<<\n"There was serious opposition to this new-fangled technology [pencils], because the thinking was that if children became dependent on writing they would lost their memory power. That serious argument was advanced by Plato."\n<<<\nin OECD, //Learning to Change: ICT in Schools// (2001), p.107\n\n----\n\nJoseph Weizenbaum (MIT) - the computer is "a solution in search of problems."\n\nquoted in - T. Roszak, //The Cult of Information: the folklore of computers and the true art of thinking// (Cambridge, 1986), p.51\n\n----\n<<<\n"Finally, we must resist the temptation to use technology just because it is available. We human beings are fascinated with new technology - nowadays especially with the new educational technology. And those responsible for inventing and developing the technology are even more fascinated with it than the rest of us are. We must resist the temptation to climb Mount Everest just because it is there."\n<<<\nH.A. Simon, 'Cooperation between Educational Technology and Learning Theory to Advance Higher Education' (in P.S. Goodman (ed.), //Technology Enhanced Learning: opportunities for change//; London, 2001), p.63\n\n----\n<<<\n"There has been much talk about the information superhighways, but little talk about traffic jams and the lack of parking space."\n<<<\n*technology can produce a glut of information which can crowd out more important stuff.\n\nH.A. Simon, 'Cooperation between Educational Technology and Learning Theory to Advance Higher Education' (in P.S. Goodman (ed.), //Technology Enhanced Learning: opportunities for change//; London, 2001), p.64\n\n----\n\nThe Alliance for Childhood in the USA argues that parents & teachers have been distracted from children's basic needs:\n\n*contact with other human beings\n*contact with natural world\n*space to grow & develop\n*time to be children\n\nThe use of ICT introduces them to "adult mode of seated, intellectually oriented approach." Suggestions that ICT use leads to obesity. (p.153)\n<<<\n"our national infatuation with computers in early childhood and elementary education... is fuelled by adults' fears about their own ability to keep up with the pace of technological and cultural change." (p.154)\n<<<\nReynolds, Treharne & Tripp, //ICT - the hopes and the reality// (British Journal of Educational Technology, 34:2, 2003)\n\n----\n\nPostman (1985) - ICT shouldn't be used just to make learning 'fun':\n<<<\n"And in the end, what will the students have learned? They will, to be sure, have learned something about (the content in question), most of which they could have learned just as well by other means. Mainly, they will have learned that learning is a form of entertainment or, more precisely, that anything worth learning can take the form of entertainment, and ought to."\n<<<\nquoted in Okan, 'Edutainment: is learning at risk?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:3, 2003), p.258\n\n----\n\nOkan, et al (2001) - using technology can damage serious learning:\n<<<\n"So although technology often fascinates students, it has an unintented effect of battering habits congruent with serious learning."\n<<<\nquoted in Okan, 'Edutainment: is learning at risk?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:3, 2003), p.258\n\n----\n\nPrimary reason for using technology shouldn't be to make it 'fun' for students - no higher-order tasks:\n<<<\n"If the primary advantage of using the technology is that is will be fun for students or more 'motivating', seriously consider why this is so. We think you will find that technology often diminishes the need to attend seriously to prior knowledge, to use metacognitive strategies, question prior ideas, generate examples, compare alternative solutions, grapple with experience, make sense of these new experiences, make new connections and analyze whether prior connections make sense."\n<<<\nquoted in Okan, 'Edutainment: is learning at risk?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:3, 2003), p.260\n\n----\n\nDifficulty of technology-based learning is the reality of development costs:\n<<<\n"There is little doubt that highly interactive learning programmes that use extensive branching to tailor the material to the evolving needs of the learner are very effective. But they are also usually very complex and require significant resources to design and develop. Thi smakes them expensive and cost effective only for situations where there is a large number of potential learners or where the costs of not getting the learning right are unacceptable."\n<<<\n<<<\n"If the main determinant is the cost of producing learning that covers a given set of topics, then producers will deliver solutions to that criterion and will not seek to maximise effectiveness."\n<<<\nRushby, 'Editorial: where are the new paradigms?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:3, 2005), p.359\n\n----\n\nInvestment in ICTs in education since 1970s:\n<<<\n"Rarely in the history of education has so much been spent by so many for so long, with so little to show for the blood, sweat and tears expended."\n<<<\nNichol & Watson, 'Editorial: Rhetoric & reality: the present and future of ICT in education' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:2, 2003), p.132\n\n----\n\nReasons for ICT in education:\n\nNunan (1983) - clamour for ICT = offshoot of behaviourist psychology - trying to push students into learning standardized content in standard ways. (p.1006)\n\nOthers have seen it as a conspiracy by educational hardware/software producers (p.1007)\n\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005)\n\n----\n\nFranklin (1992) - advantages always come with concomitant disadvantages:\n<<<\n"Whenever someone talks to you about the benefits and costs of a particular project, don't ask 'what benefits?' ask '//whose// benefits and //whose// costs?' At times it helps to rephrase an observation in line with a perspective from the receiving end of technology."\n<<<\nRumble, 'Just How Relevant is E-education to Global Educational Needs?', (//Online Learning//, 16:3, 2001)\n\n----\n\nDanger of 'soundbite-ism' - most children expect entertainment from ICT - teachers therefore under pressure to give into them - leads to practically //any// use of ICT being seen as a 'good thing'.\n\nConlon, 'Visions of Change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology// 31:2, 2000), p.114\n\n----

Knowledge & learning always associated with literacy:\n<<<\n"Knowledge and learning are almost always viewed in forms associated with current literacies; they appear to us through the lens of a literacy."\n<<<\n*(This is a reason for people who //don't// have ICT literacy not seeing need for it)\n\nA.A. diSessa, //Changing Minds: computers, learning, and literacy// (London, 2000), p.65\n\n----\n\nDanger of using term like 'computer literacy':\n<<<\n"We need to be much more accountable in saying when and how certain materials, computers among them, might convey enough intellectual power to be likened to textual literacy."\n<<<\nA.A. diSessa, //Changing Minds: computers, learning, and literacy// (London, 2000), p.109\n\n----\n\nICTs change how we define literacy:\n<<<\n"Computers, along with multimedia software and hardware, help us express our ideas as animations, video poems, slide shows, interactive movies, virtual environments, and other forms yet to be created. As we create these new texts, we are changing how we define literacy."\n<<<\nB. Reilly, 'New Technologies, New Literacies, New Patterns' (in C. Fisher, D.C. Dwyer & K. Yocam (eds.), //Education and Technology: reflections on computing in classrooms// (San Francisco, 1996), p.218\n\n----\n\nTeachers see 'ICT competency' in terms of general skills and vocabulary.\n\nDemetriadis, et al, ' 'Cultures in negotiation': teachers' acceptance/resistance attitudes considering the infusion of technology into schools' (//Computers & Education//, 41, 2003), p.30\n\n----\n<<<\n"ICT is being introduced to education not because it does a better job: it is being introduced because it does the job differently and\nbecause this different way of doing things is now rapidly conquering the world, is radically changing it and schools do not have the option\nof ignoring it."\n<<<\nA. Aviram, 'From "Computers in the Classroom" to mindful radical adaptation by education system to the emerging cyber culture' (//Journal of Educational Change//, 1, 2000), p.340\n\n----

Fullan (1991) - current focus on technology is only 30 years after similar focus on science (stimulated by space race & global political needs)\n\nWatson, 'Pedagogy before Technology: rethinking the relationship between ICT and teaching' (//Education and Information Technology//, 6:4, 2001), p.265\n\n----\n<<<\n"Despite these huge investments and grandiose expectations, ICT has not been widely integrated into educational systems throughout the postindustrial world; and to the extent that it has been integrated, there is no clear evidence that ICT makes a difference to student outcomes, enhances desired modes of learning or desired social values, or brings about desired changes in approaches to teaching (Alexander, 1999; Healy, 1998: Melamed, 1999). Indeed, on the basis of the outcomes realized to date, one could characterize the rapid and costly response of educational systems to the ICT revolution as “much ado about nothing�. Furthermore, the introduction of ICT into education has often been carried out with vague and confused conceptions of the desired model of learning which the new technologies were supposed to enhance and without clear conceptions of any guiding educational values (Postman, 1992; Healy, 1998; Aviram, 1999a, 1999e; Agalianos, 1997: Agalianos & Witty, 2000)."\n<<<\nA. Aviram, 'From "Computers in the Classroom" to mindful radical adaptation by education system to the emerging cyber culture' (//Journal of Educational Change//, 1, 2000), p.332\n\n----

ICT = adaptable.\n<<<\n"Information technology is such an adaptable intellectual tool that it may be better visualised as many tools."\n<<<\nN. Davis, et al, 'Can quality in learning be enhanced through the use of IT?' (in B. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.17\n\n----\n\nICT covers wide range of technologies:\n<<<\n"The label 'ICT' embraces a range of software with very different features... It is clearly unhelpful to talk about the range of ICT types as if they were all identical and to suggst that a single model of integration will suit each type is equally unhelpful."\n<<<\nL. Newton, 'Management and the use of ICT in subject teaching' (in Selwood, Find & O'Mahony (eds.), //Management of Education in the Information Age: the role of ICT//; 2003), p.17\n\n----\n\nOne way of thinking is that ICTs are "systems that support cultural tools that are now in the process of development."\n\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1010\n\n----

ICT allows new learning styles:\n<<<\n"the new technology is playing a role in the redefinition of self... Electronic technology is helping to change the communicative balance between word and image in our media... It is the breakout of the visual that leads to new constructions of the self."\n<<<\nBolter (1996), quoted in C. Abbott, //ICT: changing education// (London, 2001), p.17\n\n----\n\nChallenge = to create higher-order tasks using ICT:\n<<<\n"The challenge for education is to design technologies for learning that draw both from knoweldge about human cognition and from how technology can facilitate complex tasks in the workplace. These designs use technologies to scaffold thinking and activity, much as training wheels allow young bike riders to practice cycling when they would fall without support."\n<<<\nJ.D. Bransford, A.L. Brown, R.R. Cocking (eds.), //How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School// (Washington D.C., 1999), p.202\n\n----\n\nDewey (1925) - effect of tool on learner:\n<<<\n"A tool is a particular thing, but it is more than a particular thing, since it is a thing in which a connection, a sequential bond of nature is embodied. It posesses an objective relation as its own defining property. Its perception as well as its actual use takes the mind to other things."\n<<<\nquoted in D. Blacker & J. McKie, 'Information and Communication Technology' (in N. Blake, et al. (eds.), //The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Education//; Oxford, 2003), p.235\n\n----\n\nTechnology affects the way learners think:\n<<<\n"The new technology is not just an assemblage of machines and their accompanying software. It embodies a //form of thinking// that orients a person to approach the world in a particular way. Computers involve ways of thinking that are primarily //technical//."\n<<<\n*'How to' tends to replace 'why'\n\nM. Apple, 'Is the New Technology part of the solution or part of the problem in education?' (in A. Darder, M. Baltodano & R.D. Torres, //The Critical Pedagogy Reader//; London, 2003), p.454\n\n----\n\nMarshall McLuhan (1964) - technology affects humans:\n<<<\n"Any technology tends to create a new human environment." (p.1)\n<<<\n<<<\n"Technological environments are not merely passive containers of people but are active processes that reshape people and other technologies alike." (p.3-4)\n<<<\nquoted in E.F. Provenzo, Jr., A. Brett G.N. McCloskey, //Computers, Curriculum, and Cultural Change: an introduction for teachers// (London, 1999)\n\n----\n\nHeidegger - technology mediates human experience:\n<<<\n"any technology - whether the automobile, television, or the computer - //mediates human experience through it selection/amplification and reduction characteristics.//"\n<<<\nE.F. Provenzo, Jr., A. Brett G.N. McCloskey, //Computers, Curriculum, and Cultural Change: an introduction for teachers// (London, 1999), p.4\n\n----\n\nBowers - learners should become self-reflectively aware of the impact ICT has upon their modes of thought:\n<<<\n"Understanding how the educational use of computers infludences our pattern of thinking, and thus contributes to changes in the symbolic underpinning of the culture, should be an essential aspect of computer literacy."\n<<<\nquoted in E.F. Provenzo, Jr., A. Brett G.N. McCloskey, //Computers, Curriculum, and Cultural Change: an introduction for teachers// (London, 1999), p.23\n\n----\n\nWinograd & Flores (1987) - we create technology, but it also creates us:\n<<<\n"All new technologies develop within the background of a tacit understanding of human nature and human work. The use of technology in turn leads to fundamental changes in what we do, and ultimately in turn what it is to be human. We encounter the deep questions of design when we recognize that in designing tools we are designing ways of being."\n<<<\nquoted in E.F. Provenzo, Jr., A. Brett G.N. McCloskey, //Computers, Curriculum, and Cultural Change: an introduction for teachers// (London, 1999), p.40\n\n----\n\nSherry Turkle - computer more than just a tool:\n<<<\n"At one level, the computer is a tool. It helps us write, keep track of our accounts, and communicate with others. Beyond this, the computer offers us both new models of mind, a new medium on which to project our ideas and fantasies."\n<<<\nquoted in E.F. Provenzo, Jr., A. Brett G.N. McCloskey, //Computers, Curriculum, and Cultural Change: an introduction for teachers// (London, 1999), p.195\n\n----\n\nHeim (1993) - thought processes are shaped by technology - e.g. search engines use Boolean logic - affects the way we think, the questions we raise & the answers we get.\n\ncited in C. Lankshear, M. Peters & M. Knobel, 'Information, knowledge & learning: some issues facing epistemology and education in a digital age' (in M.R. Lee & K. Nicoll (eds.), //Distributed Learning: social and cultural approaches to practice//; London, 2002), p.28\n\n----\n\nMcLuhan (1987) - the medium is the message:\n<<<\n"In a culture like ours, long accustomed to splitting and dividing all things as a means of control, it is sometimes a bit of shock to be reminded that, in operational and practical fact, the medium is the message. This is merely to say that the personal and social consequences of any medium - that is, of any extension of ourselves - result from the new scale that is introduced into our affairs by each extension of ourselves, or by any new technology."\n<<<\nquoted in N. Lee, 'The Extensions of Childhood: technologies, children and independence' (in I. Hutchby & J. Moran-Ellis, //Children, Technology and Culture: the impacts of technologies in children's everyday lives//; London, 2001), p.162\n\n----\n<<<\n"Learning takes place in the head of the student, and depends entirely on the activities of hte student... The activities of teachers, and the impact of textbooks or lectures or electronic displays influence education only to the extent that they affect the behaviors of the students. Designing effective methods requires predicting, with some accuracy, how students will respond to them."\n<<<\nH.A. Simon, 'Cooperation between Educational Technology and Learning Theory to Advance Higher Education' (in P.S. Goodman (ed.), //Technology Enhanced Learning: opportunities for change//; London, 2001), p.62\n\n----\n\nSalomon (1993) - possibility of people still 'thinking with a tool' even when the tool is not present\n\nSutherland & InterActive Project Team, //Designs for Learning: ICT and knowledge in the classroom// (Computers & Education, 43, 2004), p.6\n\n----\n\nCole & Engestrom (1993) - cultural mediation has a "recursive, bidirectional effect; mediated activity simultaneously modifies both the environment and the subject."\n\nSutherland & InterActive Project Team, //Designs for Learning: ICT and knowledge in the classroom// (Computers & Education, 43, 2004), p.6\n\n----\n\nProblem of learning being equated with 'having fun' - Bloom & Hanych:\n<<<\n"such an approach doesn't promote learning: it trivializes the learning process."\n<<<\nquoted in Okan, 'Edutainment: is learning at risk?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:3, 2003), p.258\n\n----\n\nSchnotz (2002) - new ways of dealing with and presenting information should be used due to different ways learners process info:\n<<<\n"As humans are exposed to an increasing mass of information that frequently dazzles the eyes, ears and mind, new standards of presenting information emerge... One can assume that learners who have much experience with electronic media and with new kinds of information presentation might have new expectations, new attitudes, and new processing havits that affect their cognitive processing."\n<<<\nquoted in Okan, 'Edutainment: is learning at risk?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:3, 2003), p.262\n\n----\n\nOppenheimer (1997) - we don't know the effect of using computers with young learners:\n<<<\n"Little or no data exists on how comptuers affect the brains of young learners and whether we are teaching students to be better thinkers because they have access to technology. In other words, no clear method of 'best practices' is evident. In lieu of this, it appears that schools are forced to make subjective decisions, which affect the future of education on a massive scale."\n<<<\nquoted in Okan, 'Edutainment: is learning at risk?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:3, 2003), p.263\n\n----\n\nJonassen & Rohrer-Murphy (1999) - tools affect human mental development:\n<<<\n"tools mediate or alter the nature of human activity and, when internalized, influence humans' mental development."\n<<<\nquoted in Demetriadis, et al, ' 'Cultures in negotiation': teachers' acceptance/resistance attitudes considering the infusion of technology into schools' (//Computers & Education//, 41, 2003), p.34\n\n----\n\nTechnology can given students greater control - metaphor of moving from 'stepping stones' approach to a 'walled garden' approach - i.e. intranet rather than internet.\n\nSomekh, 'New Technology and Learning: policy and practice in the UK, 1980-2010' (//Education and Information Technology//, 5:1, 2000), p.30\n\n----\n\nTechnology always has an effect on the user:\n<<<\n"Regardless of whether the implement is a stylus, a quill, a pencil or a keyboard, technologies of incription and communication do things //to// people as well as //for// people."\n<<<\n<<<\n"Like the tool of language computers are instruments of normalisation, marginalisation or empowerment, depending on who is using them, how they are being operated, and to what end they are being employed."\n<<<\nKapitzke, 'Information Technology as Cultural Capital' (//Education and Information Technology//, 5:1, 2000), p.59\n\n----

Need for 'integrated teachers':\n<<<\n"They will not only be delivering knowledge, but acting as counsellors, advisors, organizers, leaders and managers. They will collaborate in the design, elaboration and production of tools for teaching. Thus they will be genuine intellectuals, specialists in teaching and learning, true professionals."\n<<<\nB. Cornu, 'New technologies: integration into education' (in D. Watson & D. Tinsley (eds.), //Integrating Information Technology into Education//; London, 1995), p.8\n\n----\n\nBecker (2000) - used //Teaching, Learning & Computing survey// (over 4000 teachers in 1,100 US schools) - minority of teachers had used computers transformatively. Such teachers,\n<<<\n"...have fairly distinctive teaching philosophies, being disproportionately supportive of constructivist pedagogies such as developing student responsibility for selecting and carrying out tasks, emphasising group work involving discourse, and the use of projects, products, and performances for outside audiences."\n<<<\nConlon & Simpson, 'Silicon Valley versus Silicon Glen: the impact of computers upon teaching and learning: a comparative study' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:2, 2003), p.148\n\n----\n\nTeachers in study commented on the benefits of ICT in "re-awakening a learning culture among the staff" - improved communications (sharing resources, etc.) (p.77)\n<<<\n"Around half of the respondents acknowledged that ICT could have a significant impact on the classroom of the future, making it a very different place from that experience today." (p.78)\n<<<\nCondie & Simpson, 'The Impact of ICT initiatives in Scottish schools: cultural issues' (//European Journal of Teacher Education//, 27:1.2004)\n\n----\n\nICTs result in changes in teaching styles, etc.\n<<<\n"IT is not only perceived as a catalyst for change, but also change in teaching style, change in learning approaches, and change in access to information."\n<<<\n*teachers not impressed because focus on what technology can //do//, rather than on learning.\n\nWatson, 'Pedagogy before Technology: rethinking the relationship between ICT and teaching' (//Education and Information Technology//, 6:4, 2001), p.251\n\n----\n\nOfsted (2001):\n<<<\n"Only a minority of teachers are capable of managing ICT resources and organising the classroom to ensure that effective subject learning is taking place."\n<<<\nquoted in - Watson, 'Pedagogy before Technology: rethinking the relationship between ICT and teaching' (//Education and Information Technology//, 6:4, 2001), p.258\n\n----\n\nTechnology often results in teachers becoming co-learners with students - shift in roles - more autonomus learning - teachers become //facilitators// of learning (scaffolding)\n\n*links to Vygotsky's 'zone of proximal development'\n\nSomekh, 'New Technology and Learning: policy and practice in the UK, 1980-2010' (//Education and Information Technology//, 5:1, 2000), p.28\n\n----\n\nSome staff see technological developments as a threat - either becuase they are pushed to the margins of their competence, or because it alters the balance of power in the teaching & learning interaction.\n\nKing, 'Managing the Changing Nature of Distance and Open Education at Institutional Level' (//Online Learning//, 16:1, 2001), p.52\n\n----\n\nGates (1995) - computers to replace teachers?\n<<<\n"There is an often-expressed fear that technology will replace teachers. I can say emphatically and unequivocally, IT WON'T."\n<<<\nquoted in - T. Imison & P. Taylor, //Managing ICT in the Secondary School//, (Oxford, 2001), p.111\n\n----\n\nBarnes (1992):\n<<<\n"To achieve change, teachers need to discover that their existing frame for understanding what happens in their classes is only one of several possible ones, and this... is likely to be achieved only when the teachers themselves reflect critically upon what they do and its results."\n<<<\nquoted in - G.F. Hoban, //Teacher Learning for Educational Change: a systems thinking approach// (OUP, 2002), p.62\n\n----

Fullan (1982) - classic stages of an innovation:\n<<<\n*its source (where did the idea come from and why?);\n*its adoption (the decision of an institution to initiate the work);\n*its implementation (teachers and students putting the new ideas into practice);\n*its institutionalisation (changes in practice established as the norm so they will continue without any special support.\n<<<\nB. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.191\n\n----\n\n2 things necessary to change school culture r.e. ICT:\n\n(i) teachers need support - not just additional resources but time & assistance to apply understanding of ICT to planning & teaching\n(ii) formal assessment system need adapting to give pupils credit for problem-solving, not just regurgitation, skills\n\nA. McFarlane, '...and where might we end up?' (in A. McFarlane (ed.), //Information Technology and Authentic Learning: realising the potential of computers in the primary classroom//; London, 1997), p.178\n\n----\n\nFullan (1991) - key factos that affect successful implementation of an innovation:\n\n*needs identification\n*goal clarity\n*complexity (degree of difficulty)\n*practicality\n\ncited in L. Newton, 'Management and the use of ICT in subject teaching' (in Selwood, Find & O'Mahony (eds.), //Management of Education in the Information Age: the role of ICT//; 2003), p.13\n\n----\n\nAttitude, not provision = key in ICT implementation:\n<<<\n"...ultimately, successful integration of ICT into teaching is dependent on the attitudes, understanding and action of individual teachers towards teaching with new technology."\n<<<\nL. Newton, 'Management and the use of ICT in subject teaching' (in Selwood, Find & O'Mahony (eds.), //Management of Education in the Information Age: the role of ICT//; 2003), p.14\n\n----\n\nKnezeck, et al (2000) - 'will skill & access' = 3 conditions to promote teacher uptake r.e. ICT:\n\n''Will:'' positive attitudes towards ICT (40% of variance)\n''Skill:'' level of competence (40% of variance)\n''Access:'' ability to procure computer & relevant software on regular basis (10% of variance)\n\ncited in M. Lambert & P. Nolan, 'Managing Learning Environments in Schools: developing ICT capable teachers' (in Selwood, Fung & O'Mahony (eds.), //Management of Education in the Information Age: the role of ICT//; 2003), p.171\n\n----\n\n3 reasons why dramatic changes in education r.e. ICT differ from any previous reform:\n\n(i) ICT has arisen from //outside// the world of education, unlike previous reforms, 'but with an irresistible case for adoption within schools.\n(ii) Those who are taught often 'more comfortable with the new developments than their teachers'.\n(iii) 'Finally, the pervasive nature of ICT has profound implications across the ethos and organisation of the whole of the learning environment.'\n\nOECD, //Learning to Change: ICT in Schools// (2001), p.10\n\n----\n\nSchon (1971) - all real change involves passing through zones of uncertainty.\n\nFullan (1991) - "The anxieties of uncertainty and the joys of mastery are central to the subjective meaning of educational change."\n\nFullan (1991) - "Conflict is fundamental to any successful change effort... success in school change efforts is much more likely when problems are treated as natural, expected phenomena, and are looked for."\n\nquoted in - B. Robinson, 'Getting Ready to Change: the place of change theory in the information technology education of teachers' (in D. Passey & B. Samways (eds.), //Information Technology: supporting change through teacher education// (London, 1997), p.42\n\n----\n\n5 stages of instructional evolution in ACOT (Apple Classrooms of Technology):\n\n1. ''Entry'' - teachers focus on changes to physical environment - replication of traditional activities.\n2. ''Adoption'' - teachers use text-based 'drill-and-practice' - still using whole-group lectures and individualised 'seat work'.\n3. ''Adaption'' - technology increasingly incorporated into lessons - increases in student productivity and engagement.\n4. ''Appropriation'' - teachers understand technology & use it effortlessly as tool to accomplish real work - team teaching, inter-disciplinary projects, etc. - old assumptions questioned.\n5. ''Invention'' - continuing development by teachers - integrated curriculum & alternative assessment.\n\nI. Haymore Sandholtz & C. Ringstaff, 'Teacher Change in Technology-Rich Classrooms' (in C. Fisher, D.C. Dwyer & K. Yocam (eds.), //Education and Technology: reflections on computing in classrooms// (San Francisco, 1996), p.285-7\n\n----\n\n'Productivity Paradox' - little connection between investments in IT and productivity benefits (i.e. benefit may not be where you expect them to be)\n\nP.S. Goodman - 'Creating Organizational and Technological Change (in P.S. Goodman (ed.), //Technology Enhanced Learning: opportunities for change//; London, 2001), p.157\n\n----\n\nChoosing technology before the educational task is "like buying twelve dozen hammers, then searching for nails to pound."\n\nH.A. Simon, 'Cooperation between Educational Technology and Learning Theory to Advance Higher Education' (in P.S. Goodman (ed.), //Technology Enhanced Learning: opportunities for change//; London, 2001), p.63\n\n----\n\nBecta study - ICT has cumulative effect on raising standards - more subjects ICT used for, better results across all subjects.\n\nReynolds, Treharne & Tripp, //ICT - the hopes and the reality// (British Journal of Educational Technology, 34:2, 2003), p.159\n\n----\n\nOECD (2001) - use of technology in education too dependent on pioneering teachers:\n<<<\n"Technology use reflects traditional classroom methodology, though affording some increased attention to the individual learner, it still depends too much on highly motivated pioneering principals and teachers."\n<<<\nquoted in Demetriadis, et al, ' Cultures in negotiation': teachers' acceptance/resistance attitudes considering the infusion of technology into schools' (//Computers & Education//, 41, 2003), p.21\n\n----\n\nEly (1993) - 3 major conditions relevant to ICT implementation:\n\n'(i) dissatisfaction with the status quo\n(ii) existence of knowledge and skills\n(iii) availability of resources'\n\nquoted in Demetriadis, et al, ' Cultures in negotiation': teachers' acceptance/resistance attitudes considering the infusion of technology into schools' (//Computers & Education//, 41, 2003), p.22\n\n----\n\nImplementation of ICT bound to experience opposition:\n<<<\n"Not all will share the motivations, values and needs of the innovation's originators. Some will experience (or at least perceive) the costs of introducing the innovation as higher than the perceived benefits, and are therefore likely to ignore, resent, reject, subvert, or oppose the change."\n<<<\nWhitworth, 'The Politics of Virtual Learning Environments: environmental change, conflict, and e-learning' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:4, 2005), p.686\n\n----\n\n'Success' and 'failure' are subjective terms:\n<<<\n"Each stakeholder group brings to the development process a certain culture, filled with assumptions, values, prior experiences, calculations of costs and benefits, and the like. Therefore, each will have different ideas about what will constitute the 'success' or 'failture' of an innovation."\n<<<\nWhitworth, 'The Politics of Virtual Learning Environments: environmental change, conflict, and e-learning' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:4, 2005), p.686\n\n----\n\nProblem of ad-hoc resourcing of ICT:\n<<<\n"provides the illusion of adequate resourcing for educational purposes, at least in some rather limited areas: wordprocessing and printing."\n<<<\n*schools cannot capitalize on developments in ICTs any further, for fear of alienating those with inadequate provision.\n\nGough, 'Opinion: 'Learning Technologies'? 'Convergent Technologies'? What do these mean?' (//Education and Information Technologies, 5:2, 2000), p.135\n\n----\n\nSchools cannot re-purpose ICTs as 'tools':\n<<<\n"it does not make any sense for educational systems to refer to the ICT revolution in its present form as involving technological tools that the system can “swallow� as it did earlier devices such as the television or the video, which did not leave any meaningful mark on the educational system. Rather, we have to switch from speaking about “integrating computers into the classroom� or “using ICT for the teaching of Math to fourth graders� to radically restructuring the educational system, while relying on a broad cultural perspective, in order to enhance its adaptation to cyber culture and postmodernity, thus saving it from marginalization or even extinction."\n<<<\nA. Aviram, 'From "Computers in the Classroom" to mindful radical adaptation by education system to the emerging cyber culture' (//Journal of Educational Change//, 1, 2000), p.345\n\n----

Idea of the meme first appeared in Richard Dawkins' 1976 book //The Selfish Gene//:\n<<<\n"We need a name for the new replicator, a noun that conveys the idea of a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of //imitation//. 'Mimeme' comes from a suiable Greek root, but I want a monosyllable that sounds a bit like 'gene'. I hope my classicist friends will forgive me if I abbreviate mimeme to //meme//."\n<<<\nS. Blackmore, //The Meme Machine// (OUP, 1999), p.6\n\n----\n\nDefinition of a meme & examples:\n<<<\n"Everything that is passed from person to person [by a process of imitation] is a meme. This includes all the words in your vocabulary, the stories you know, the skills and habits you have picked up from others and the games you like to play... Each of these memes has evolved in its own unique way with its own history, but each of them is using your behaviour to get itself copied."\n<<<\nS. Blackmore, //The Meme Machine// (OUP, 1999), p.7\n\n----\n\nMemes = amoral:\n<<<\n"Memes spread themselves around indiscriminately without regard to whether they are useful, neutral, or positively harmful to us. A brilliant new scientific idea, or a technological invention, may spread because of its usefulness. A song like Jingle Bells may spread because it sounds OK, though it is not seriously useful and can definitely get on your nerves. But some memes are positively harmful - like chain letters and pyramid selling, new methods of fraud and false doctrines, ineffective slimming diets and dangerous medical 'cures'."\n<<<\nS. Blackmore, //The Meme Machine// (OUP, 1999), p.7\n\n----\n\nCannot define the unit of the meme - part of a symphony, or all of it?\n\nS. Blackmore, //The Meme Machine// (OUP, 1999), p.53\n\n----\n\n//Oxford English Dictionary:// **meme** - an element of culture that may be considered to be passed on by non-genetic means.\n\nD. Sperber, 'An Objection to the Memetic Approach to Culture' (in R. Aunger (ed.), //Darwinizing Culture: The Status of Memetics as a Science//; OUP, 2000), p.163\n\n----\n\nMeme:\n<<<\n"The terms has come to describe a cultural unit that individuals rapidly take up and pass along to others."\n<<<\n*E.g.'s of successful memes = advertising slogans that become part of everday language, best sellers, emoticons & abbreviations.\n\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1007\n\n----\n\nJahoda (2002) - idea of memes = simplistic and untestable.\n\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1008\n\n----\n\nSuccessful memes are "flexible, adaptable and can be turned into many different particular uses."\n\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1008\n\n----\n<<<\n"Briefly put, memetics suggests that new ideas spread through a culture via a genetically modelled information flow in which some ideas become successful by rapidly replicating themselves and finding willing 'hosts' to pass them new ideas."\n<<<\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1009\n\n----\n\nEd. Tech. = a successful meme:\n<<<\n"Educational technology is a successful //meme// because, like a wordprocessor or other functional computer programme [sic], it 'copies the instruction' on how to make new copies of itself." (Blackmore, 1999)\n<<<\n<<<\n"As a //meme//, it [educational technology] has become attractive enough to garner a wide network of adherent, a group of supporters who willingly and eagerly pass the idea on to others. It is, in other words, an idea that fits well with current cultural assumptions about how the world works."\n<<<\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1010\n\n----\n\nMemetic interpretation of ICT in education:\n<<<\n"In a memetic interpretation, it is not so much that individuals find ICT tools attractive and urge their use, nor is it that groups (institutions such as schools) take an intentional stand in favor of using these tools. Rather, it is that the //idea// of using these tools in particular ways is so attractive and so motivating that individuals are constrained, willy-nilly, to pass on a good thing and to encourage others... to use ICT as a an increasingly regular taken-for-granted part of education."\n<<<\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1014\n\n----

<<<\n"Ironically, change is often made more difficult because managers concentrate on trying to get other people to change, not realising that they may need to begin by changing their own management strategies - and probably also some aspects of organizational structure."\n<<<\n(C.f. metaphor of trying to put an engine in a horse)\n\nB. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997)\n\n----\n\nHoyle (1976) - two extreme forms of organization in schools:\n\n''Bureaucratic (hierarchical)''\n*Fixed, rigid roles for teaching staff\n*Clear & definite rules\n*Rigid timetable & curriculum\n*Head has lots of power\n\n''Non-bureaucratic''\n*Very few rules (and those established open to interpretation)\n*Flexible timetable & curriculum\n*School policy decided by teachers\n\nB. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, 'IT and the politics of institutional change' (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.196\n\n----\n\nOrganizations = concepts:\n<<<\n"[Social institutions] are not entitities whose functions may be explained and controlled in terms of simple causes and controlled in terms of simple causes and efefcts. Rather, organizations are concepts. They are constituted in the minds of people. They are therefore subject to different and variable interpretations and impressions and different intensities of interest."\n<<<\nA. Inglis, P. Ling & V. Joosten, //Delivering Digitally: managing the transition to the knowlege media// (London, 2002), p.19\n\n----\n\nIntegration of new technology into classroom practice = essentially a problem of management.\n\nL. Newton, 'Management and the use of ICT in subject teaching' (in Selwood, Find & O'Mahony (eds.), //Management of Education in the Information Age: the role of ICT//; 2003), p.12\n\n----\n\nLeadership needed to integrate ICT and change organization:\n<<<\n"Visionary school leadership is needed to bring about and sustain the dramatic changes enabled by ICT, to persuade and give confidence to all involved - teachers and learners, parents and others in the school and community. The school must be re-organised so that working with ICT becomes integral and unexceptional..."\n<<<\nOECD, //Learning to Change: ICT in Schools// (2001), p.16\n\n----\n\nDifferent forms of change:\n\n(i) ''Incremental change'' - builds on work already done, making small changes.\n(ii) ''Discontinuous change'' - organization makes fundamental break with past and undergoes major restructuring.\n(iii) ''Proactive change'' - organization plans ahead and anticipates need to make changes.\n(iv) ''Reactive change'' - changes in regulations, environment or competition forces organization to change.\n\nP.S. Goodman - 'Creating Organizational and Technological Change (in P.S. Goodman (ed.), //Technology Enhanced Learning: opportunities for change//; London, 2001), p.163\n\n----\n\n'Paradox of value' - tendency to build expectation r.e. benefits & understate losses in any change - initially, experienced costs likely to be higher and benefits lower. This leads to a discrepancy between expectations and experience - the greater the discrepancy, the more negativity.\n\nP.S. Goodman - 'Creating Organizational and Technological Change (in P.S. Goodman (ed.), //Technology Enhanced Learning: opportunities for change//; London, 2001), p.170\n\n----\n<<<\n"Institutionalization refers to a process by which the change persists over time and the new learning environments become part of the structure, norms and values of the organization. The change becomes independent of any individual."\n<<<\nP.S. Goodman - 'Creating Organizational and Technological Change (in P.S. Goodman (ed.), //Technology Enhanced Learning: opportunities for change//; London, 2001), p.172-3\n\n----\n\nZhao & Cziko (2001) - 3 conditions necessary for teachers to use technology:\n\n1. Teachers must believe that technology can more effectively achieve or maintain a higher-level goal than what has been used ('effectiveness')\n2. Teachers must believe that using technology will not cause disturbances to other higher-level goals that they evaluate as more important than the one being maintained ('disturbances')\n3. Teachers must believe that they have the ability and the resources to use technology ('control')\n\nquoted in Demetriadis, et al, ' 'Cultures in negotiation': teachers' acceptance/resistance attitudes considering the infusion of technology into schools' (//Computers & Education//, 41, 2003), p.21\n\n----\n\nNeed for change management:\n<<<\n"Whilst ICT has its own unique properties and additional requirements, the underlying need to address the fundamental requirements of change management is inescapable."\n<<<\nTearle, 'ICT implementation: what makes the difference?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:5, 2003), p.578\n\n----\n\nChanging ideas r.e. learning should lead to a change in the structure of schools:\n<<<\n"Contemporary enthusiasm for using technology in education has much to do with current ideas about what learning is and how to foster it in young people and therefore how schools should be organised to do this."\n<<<\n*previously, the role of educational technology was "grounded in assumptions about technology's role in providing efficiency... or motivation."\n\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1005\n\n----\n<<<\n"Many teachers have beliefs about education that are traditional and slow to change. Most feel so heavily constrained by the contexts in which they work that new methods are attempted only rarely. Policy reforms, such as those relating to technology in schools, which do not address teachers' beliefs and contexts will have only a superficial effect on practice."\n<<<\nConlon & Simpson, 'Silicon Valley versus Silicon Glen: the impact of computers upon teaching and learning: a comparative study' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:2, 2003), p.145\n\n----\n\nError in applying business models to education.\n\nBarbera, 'Quality in Virtual Educaiton Environments' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 35:1, 2004), p.15\n\n----\n\nFullan (1989) - teacher is at the heart of the success or failure of educational change - however, usually small group of innovators cascade knowledge & skills to peer group - hasn't happened with ICT. (p.259)\n\n*others see innovators as 'mavericks' as different from them (credibility gap)\n*Fullan (1991): "In many ways the more committed an individual is to the specific form of change, the less effective he or shee will be in getting others to implement it." (p.260)\n\nWatson, 'Pedagogy before Technology: rethinking the relationship between ICT and teaching' (//Education and Information Technology//, 6:4, 2001)\n\n----\n\nWillis (1993) - barries to change - reasons why "efforts that involve technology may be particularly difficult to pull off":\n\n*curriculum integration = complex\n*teachers need time to experiment\n*resentment & resistance destroys progress\n*ownership = critical to success\n*admin support = essential\n\nWatson, 'Pedagogy before Technology: rethinking the relationship between ICT and teaching' (//Education and Information Technology//, 6:4, 2001), p.260\n\n----\n\nRAND Corporation (1988) - American study:\n<<<\n"Reforms that deal with the fundamental stuff of education - teaching and learning - seem to have weak, transitory, and ephemeral effects; whilst those that expand, solidify and entrench school bureaucracy seem to have strong, enduring and concrete effects."\n<<<\nquoted in - J. Abbott & T. Ryan, //The Unfinished Revolution: learning, human behaviour, community and political paradox//, (London, 2000), p.109\n\n----\n\nWilson & Daviss (1995) - difference between industry & education:\n<<<\n"Technical cultures are shaped and driven by... a community of learners. In essence, they are webs that link research, development, evaluation and dissemination into a single, synergistic, supportive system that increases the effectiveness and efficiency of creator, user and process alike. In contrast, the teaching profession is marked by a series of missing links - separations between areas within the profession that, if joined, could create the technical culture necessary to sustain progressive innovation in education."\n<<<\nquoted in - G.F. Hoban, //Teacher Learning for Educational Change: a systems thinking approach// (OUP, 2002), p.5-6\n\n----\n<<<\n"...if educational change is viewed as a complex system, it emphasizes the need to accompany change with a framework for long-term teacher learning because change is, in essence, learning to do something differently, involving adjustments to many elements of classroom practice."\n<<<\nG.F. Hoban, //Teacher Learning for Educational Change: a systems thinking approach// (OUP, 2002), p.39\n\n----\n

<<<\n"Those who have never used a computer make assumptions about its purposes and use. These are culturally constructed ...Those who develop expertise in computer use acquire a technical language and in-front-of-screen behaviours which serve to set them apart from novices, and give them a sense of power that they frequently learn to turn to advantage."\n<<<\nB. Somekh, G. Whitty & R. Coveney, //IT and the politics of institutional change// (in B. Somekh & N. Davis, //Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning//; London, 1997), p.188\n\n----\n\nEvolution, not revolution r.e. ICT in education:\n<<<\n"Technological visionaries of one kind or another have been promising us, among other things, that schools and the rest of our world will be unrecognisable in five, ten or twenty-five years. For the vast majority of us, not surprisingly, the world is changing, but by a process of evolution rather than revolution."\n<<<\nA. McFarlane, '...and where might we end up?' (in A. McFarlane (ed.), //Information Technology and Authentic Learning: realising the potential of computers in the primary classroom//;London, 1997), p.173\n\n----\n\nTom Snyder - change r.e. ICT = inevitable:\n<<<\n"Complaining about computers is about as smart today as complaining about the printing press would have been in the 1500s."\n<<<\nquoted in E.F. Provenzo, Jr., A. Brett G.N. McCloskey, //Computers, Curriculum, and Cultural Change: an introduction for teachers// (London, 1999), p.245\n\n----\n\nFoucault - idea of an 'episteme' - a worldview that is so comprehensive that is not possible for people from one to comprehend how people from another think - kind of a 'metaparadigm'.\n\nJ. Tiffin & L. Rajasingham, //The Global Virtual University// (London & New York, 2003), p.4\n\n----\n\nPotton (1978) - sam thing gives paradigms their strength and weakness:\n<<<\n"Paradigms are also normative, telling the practictioner what to do without the necessity of long existential or epistemological consideration. But it is this aspect of paradigms that constitutes both their strength and their weakness - their strength in that it makes action possible. Their weakness in that the very reason for action is hidden in the unquestioned assumptions of the paradigm."\n<<<\nquoted in J. Tiffin & L. Rajasingham, //The Global Virtual University// (London & New York, 2003), p.83\n\n----\n\nComputers were initially used according to the behaviourist model (e.g. 'drill and practice' - individual training). This did not substantially change the way the user interacted with knowledge (Transmission Metaphor)\n\nR.M. Bottino, 'Advanced Learning Environments' (in M. Ortega & J. Bravo (eds.), //Computers and Education: towards an interconnected society//; London, 2001), p.13\n\n----\n\nBayliss (1999) - risks of not changing greater than risks of changing:\n<<<\n"We cannot afford poverty of vision, let along poverty of aspiration. There are always risks in changing but the risk of failing to change is much greater."\n<<<\nquoted in - T. Imison & P. Taylor, //Managing ICT in the Secondary School//, (Oxford, 2001), p.124\n\n----\n\nMass education was a revolution - previously, only the education elite were educated (worries r.e. people not knowing their station in life) - current system simply an evolutionary extension of that set up in 1870s.\n\nT. Stonier & C. Conlin, //The Three C's: children, computers, communication// (Chichester, 1985), p.28\n\n----\n\nKuhn (1970):\n<<<\n"To be accepted as a paradigm, a theory must seem better than its competitors, but it need not, and in fact never does, explain all the facts with which it can be confronted."\n<<<\nquoted in - G.F. Hoban, //Teacher Learning for Educational Change: a systems thinking approach// (OUP, 2002), p.5\n\n----\n\nDifference between 'training' (mechanistic paradigm) and 'education' (complexity paradigm)\n\nG.F. Hoban, //Teacher Learning for Educational Change: a systems thinking approach// (OUP, 2002), p.68\n\n----\n\nRevolutions taking place other than ICT:\n\n''Economic Globalization revolution'' - "the collapse of trade and monetary barriers that separated nations until a decade or two ago,\nand the resulting weakening of the nation-state and nation-state oriented education systems (Drucker, 1993)" (p.344)\n\n''End of Ideology revolution'' - "the transformation of western culture from reliance on objectivist and all-encompassing modern ideologies\n(Scienticism, Socialism, Nationalism, and Thick Liberalism) to “reliance� on a mixture of skeptical and relativistic views which emphasize individualistic and hedonistic values over collectivist and transcendental ones (Fukuyama, 1993). (p.344-5)\n\n''Social Pluralism revolution'' - "the transformation of western societies from societies relying on one universal set of definitions of basic\nsocial roles, to pluralistic societies allowing and encouraging a variety of definitions of the roles of “men�, “women�, “children�, “adults�,\n“old people�, and of basic social units or “families� (Fukuyama, 1993), and the resulting collapse of the automatic authority of adults\nover children fundamental to education throughout western history (Postman, 1984)." (p.345)\n\n*these four revolutions affect and interact with one another (postmodern)\n\nA. Aviram, 'From "Computers in the Classroom" to mindful radical adaptation by education system to the emerging cyber culture' (//Journal of Educational Change//, 1, 2000)\n\n----

<<<\n"ICT has the potential to cause irreversible change in classrooms and schools, and has sometimes done so already; at other sites the machines simply wait in readiness like the charactersin a science-fiction story, later to fulfill their potential."\n<<<\nC. Abbott, //ICT: changing education// (London, 2001), p.7\n\n----\n\nPotential of ICT to change what educators will assess in pupils:\n<<<\n"Future courses may not be examined by testing the limits of an individual's memory but instead may challenge a student's strategies for obtaining information quickly, for ordering it into a logical sequence, for arriving at conclusions from given facts and for accurate and rapid problem solving."\n<<<\nHill (1980) - quoted in C. Abbott, //ICT: changing education// (London, 2001), p.7\n\n----\n\nTechnology can be applied to have good or bad effects:\n<<<\n"Technology is available to develop either independence and learning or bureaucracy and teaching."\n<<<\nIllich (1973) - C. Abbott, //ICT: changing education// (London, 2001), p.32\n\n----\n\nTechnology = neutral:\n<<<\n'the technology itself is neutral. It can be used to deskill jobs, to fragment them and to increase routinisation and repetition. It can also be used to enhance them to provide more opportunities for the exercise of skill and responsibility."\n<<<\nJones (1980) - quoted in S. Dunn & V. Morgan, //The Impact of the Computer on Education: a course for teachers// (London, 1987)\n\n----\n\nDifferent views of technology:\n\n''Instrumentalist:'' technologies = simple tools for establishing predetermined ends\n\n''Substantive'' some technologies have power over developers & users - draws them toward certain ends (e.g. nuclear tech. - nuclear weapons) (p.188-9)\n\n*two extreme positions\n<<<\n"In use, technologies are neither completely neutral nor all-powerful - they are somewhere in between and beyond." (p.190)\n<<<\nJ. Johnson-Eilda, 'Living on the surface: learning in the age of global communication networks' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen: taking \nliteracy into the electronic era//; London, 1998)\n\n----\n\nFeenberg - alternative to instrumentalist & substantive positions = **critical theory of technology** which:\n<<<\n"...attempts to help developers and users understand their relations to technologies and to each other in more contextualised, interpersonal ways."\n<<<\n*not possible to identify the positive or negative potentials of technologies outside contextualised uses.\n\nin J. Johnson-Eilda, 'Living on the surface: learning in the age of global communication networks' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen: taking literacy into the electronic era//; London, 1998), p.207\n\n----\n\nThreat of ICTs:\n<<<\n"Information technology poses an enormous, possibly unique, challenge as a resource to the teacher because its use demands considerable shifts on ''all'' fronts."\n<<<\nB. Robinson, 'Getting Ready to Change: the place of change theory in the information technology education of teachers' (in D. Passey & B. Samways (eds.), //Information Technology: supporting change through teacher education// (London, 1997), p.41\n\n----\n\nPotential of ICT in education will only be realised if modification of pedagogy takes place:\n<<<\n"As a matter of fact, the introduction of a new technology can bring with it a potential for education only if educationalists confront themselves with the necessity to understand, not only the technical and management problems related to its use, but also how the new possibilities offered by technology can help in the overcoming of problems usually encountered in didactical pactice. Hence, this will occur only if they consider how technology can influence or change the nature of the pedagogy which can be developed thanks to its mediation."\n<<<\nR.M. Bottino, 'Advanced Learning Environments' (in M. Ortega & J. Bravo (eds.), //Computers and Education: towards an interconnected society//; London, 2001), p.12\n\n----\n\n3 positions r.e. educational technology:\n\n''Optimist-rhetoric'' - qualitative evidence r.e. nature and impact of ICT\n''Pessimist-rhetoric'' - ICT has no effect\n''Academic position'' - 'floating' position on spectrum of approaches\n\nNichol & Watson, 'Editorial: Rhetoric & reality: the present and future of ICT in education' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:2, 2003), p.131\n\n----\n\nICT being used "as a tool for learning with little recognition of its potential role as a catalyst for social and educational change."\n\nTearle, 'ICT implementation: what makes the difference?' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:5, 2003), p.579\n\n----\n\nICTs = tools to preserve & extend culture:\n<<<\n"The cultural 'press to use new ICT tools in schools, colleges, universities and non-school training environments stems from the perceived value and power of these new tools as ways for humans to exchange ideas, and to preserve and extend the culture, in general."\n<<<\nKerr, 'Why we all want it to work: towards a culturally based model for technology and educational change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.1014\n\n----\n\nPresence of new technology in the classroom has the potential to change culture and relationships - traditional classrooms are not ideal learning environments.\n\nSomekh, 'New Technology and Learning: policy and practice in the UK, 1980-2010' (//Education and Information Technology//, 5:1, 2000), p.25\n\n----\n\nUse of ICT allows focus to move from laborious tasks to higher-level tasks (e.g. drawing graph)\n\nSomekh, 'New Technology and Learning: policy and practice in the UK, 1980-2010' (//Education and Information Technology//, 5:1, 2000), p.29\n\n----\n<<<\n"If technology is to act as a catalyst to support change in a teacher's pedagogy, there needs to be a change in the relationship between teaching and learning in a classroom. This means restructuring pedagogy by changing the roles of teachers and students. With new technologies, the teacher need not be the sole source of knowledge, but instead a facilitator or guide to support student learning."\n<<<\nG.F. Hoban, //Teacher Learning for Educational Change: a systems thinking approach// (OUP, 2002), p.116\n\n----\n\nMeans & Olson (1994):\n<<<\n"Technology by itself is not the answer to... educational problems. ...[T]he power of technology will come from its combination with serious educational reform. Schools must first rethink their mission and structure, starting with the needs of students and a set of instructional principles, before they can understand the ways in which technology can help them."\n<<<\nquoted in - G.F. Hoban, //Teacher Learning for Educational Change: a systems thinking approach// (OUP, 2002), p.116\n\n----\n<<<\n"Initially, computers were viewed as marginal tools to aid in practice and drill, or to add functionalities to prevailing didactic structures or improve them. Today there is a broad consensus that there is no clear and unequivocal proof that the computer has any advantages as a tool for practice and drill or as an extension of traditional didactics; and that the real potential of the ICT revolution is in the unprecedented possibilities it presents for active or research-oriented learning (Gorweis, 1996; Duffy & Jonassen, 1992; Papert 1980, 1992, 1996; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1994; Semerau & Boyer, 1996; Wiburg, 1994). This has led to a preference for computers to be located in classrooms instead of in computer laboratories and for ICT to be integrated into daily learning in modes to allow and encourage active or research-oriented learning."\n<<<\nA. Aviram, 'From "Computers in the Classroom" to mindful radical adaptation by education system to the emerging cyber culture' (//Journal of Educational Change//, 1, 2000), p.334\n\n----

Adamson & Morris (2000) - traditional curriculums have:\n<<<\n"a strong degree of separation among the subject, a low degree of teacher-and-pupil control of the curriulum, and a focus on established knowledge."\n<<<\n*instead, should be focusing on problem-solving skills, etc. because you cannot teach every specific piece of knoweldge each individual will need throughout their lives.\n\nquoted in C.T. Yip, P.S. Cheung & C. Sze, //Towards a Knowledge-creating School: a research project on paradigm shift of teaching and learning in IT education// (Hong Kong, 2004), p.74\n\n----\n\nScardamelia, et al (1994) - typical school environment has little room for students to interact with other people and with the real world:\n<<<\n"Students are required to complete endless series of tasks within a limited amount of school time and the emphasis is mainly placed on the advancement of a student's personal knowledge. Communicative technologies, therefore, provide alternative channels for students to learn from peers, to establish shared knowledge, to recognize different viewpoints from other people, and to examine one's ideas and opinions."\n<<<\n*quote = from Yip, et al.\n\nC.T. Yip, P.S. Cheung & C. Sze, //Towards a Knowledge-creating School: a research project on paradigm shift of teaching and learning in IT education// (Hong Kong, 2004), p.90\n\n----\n\nThe role of the teacher in the classroom of the future needs to change from "the sage on the stage to the guide on the side."\n\nJ.W. Schofield, //Computers and Classroom Culture// (CUP, 1995), p.201\n\n----\n\nBullock Report (1975) - schools producing wrong range of skills in learners:\n<<<\n"school frequently appears to... rely on the habitual exercise of a different combination of skills from those expected elsewhere."\n<<<\n<<<\n"There is... something unacceptable about education's ability to... create such dependent learners."\n<<<\nquoted in - B. Somekh, 'Towards effective learning with new technology resources: the role of teacher education in reconceptualising the relationship between task setting and student learning in technology-rich classrooms' (in D. Passey & B. Samways (eds.), //Information Technology: supporting change through teacher education// (London, 1997), p.270\n\n----\n\nToffler - should scrap curriculum and start again:\n<<<\n"As for curriculum, the Councils of the Future, instead of assuming that every subject taught today is taught for a reason, should begin from the reverse premise: nothing should be included in a required curriculum unless it can be strongly justified in terms of the future. If this means scrapping a substantial part of the formal curriculum, so be it."\n<<<\nquoted in - M. Golby, 'The Multiple Functions of Education' (in N. Entwistle (ed.), //Routledge Handbook of Educational Ideas and Practices// (London, 1990), p.132\n\n----\n<<<\n"The creative adoption of new technology requires teachers who are willing to take risks... a professional culture that is dominated by a prescriptive curriculum, routine practices, strict demarcation lines and a tight target-setting regime, is unlikely to be helpful."\n<<<\nConlon & Simpson, 'Silicon Valley versus Silicon Glen: the impact of computers upon teaching and learning: a comparative study' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 34:2, 2003), p.149\n\n----\n\nJackson (1968) - teachers in classroom primarly concerned with "achieving and maintaining student involvement in (a set of) activities."\n\nSomekh, 'New Technology and Learning: policy and practice in the UK, 1980-2010' (//Education and Information Technology//, 5:1, 2000), p.25\n\n----\n\nTraditions of education system inherited from Victorians & no longer prepare children for world they will inhabit:\n<<<\n"The traditions of our educaiton system were mostly inherited from the Victorians. They belong to the era of the great mill and the production line and were better suited to preparing young people for that world than they are for our own world. Today we need self-confident, independent thinkers, whether team players or entrepeneurs, capable of acquiring a range of different skills and adapting to several jobs over a lifetime."\n<<<\nSomekh, 'New Technology and Learning: policy and practice in the UK, 1980-2010' (//Education and Information Technology//, 5:1, 2000), p.35\n\n----\n\nAcademic success or failure is,\n<<<\n"a product of the functioning of educational systems rather than an effect of 'natural aptitude'."\n<<<\n*transmission of 'cultural capital'\n\nKapitzke, 'Information Technology as Cultural Capital' (//Education and Information Technology//, 5:1, 2000), p.50\n\n----\n\nArguments for process-oriented rather than fact-oriented curriculum - i.e. //how to find// that Paris is the capital of France, rather than simply being told so (atlas-reading skills, etc.)\n\nJ.D.M. Underwood & G. Underwood, //Computers and Learning: helping children acquire thinking skills// (Oxford, 1990), p.59\n\n----\n\nOutdated curriculum:\n<<<\n"We are being tyrannised by curricula which fossilise information into facts to be known, rather than into material to be manipulated and thought about."\n<<<\nJ.D.M. Underwood & G. Underwood, //Computers and Learning: helping children acquire thinking skills// (Oxford, 1990), p.61\n\n----\n\nSpokesman for British Prime Minister (1996):\n<<<\n"...we have set out arrangements for what is effectively a teacher-proof curriculum."\n<<<\nquoted in - J. Abbott & T. Ryan, //The Unfinished Revolution: learning, human behaviour, community and political paradox//, (London, 2000), p.205\n\n----\n\nPapert - problem with traditional classrooms:\n<<<\n"an artificial and inefficient learning environment that society has been forced to invent because its informal environments fail in certain essential learning domains."\n<<<\n*e.g. maths, grammar, etc.\n\nquoted in - T. Stonier & C. Conlin, //The Three C's: children, computers, communication// (Chichester, 1985), p.16\n\n----

Schools exist for the 'common good':\n<<<\n"Schools are social institutions whose rationales must be subsumed under a theory of social benefit. Children are educated not only for their parents and not only for their own sakes but for a common good. How this good is to be understood is exactly what is at issue."\n<<<\nM. Golby, 'The Multiple Functions of Education' (in N. Entwistle (ed.), //Routledge Handbook of Educational Ideas and Practices// (London, 1990), p.133\n\n----\n\nPaternalist vision for education - social democratic outlook - e.g. standard curriculum to enhance social cohesion\n\n*problem with this vision = stride towards authoritarianism - drive for high standards becomes standardization, monitoring becomes surveillance, etc.\n\nConlon, 'Visions of Change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology// 31:2, 2000), p.111\n\n----\n\nICT central to libertarianism as it is individualist - c.f. Ilich (1971) - deschooling of society.\n\nConlon, 'Visions of Change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology// 31:2, 2000), p.113\n\n----\n\nPostman - education is not about amusement (involves //restraint//)\n\nConlon, 'Visions of Change' (//British Journal of Educational Technology// 31:2, 2000), p.115\n\n----\n\n''[[John Simkin|http://www.schoolhistory.co.uk/forum/index.php?showtopic=1350#]] quoting James Kay Shuttleworth - education is a means to rear:''\n<<<\nthe population in obedience to the laws, in submission to their superiors, and to fit them to strengthen the institutions of their country.\n<<<\n\n----\n\n''Peter Wilby - //Where Did It All Go Wrong?// (New Statesman, 6 March 2006) - instrumentalism of New Labour's view of the purpose of education:''\n<<<\nFor new Labour, the purpose of education is almost entirely instrumental. It is about individual ambition and aspiration - and, through that, national economic competitiveness. Blair believes in meritocracy, not equality or solidarity.\n\nEducation is described in ministerial speeches as "a driver of social mobility" or "a locomotive". Schools must "add value" to children. They must not "coast along"; they must aim to improve year by year, as must the nation as a whole. This is the language of the boardroom, not of a public project designed, in the words of the cultural critic Raymond Williams, "to express and create values of an educated democracy and a common culture".\n<<<\n\n----\n\n''Prime Minister James Callaghan talking about the lack of discussion about the purpose of education in 1976:''\n<<<\nIt is almost as though some people would wish that the subject matter and purpose of education should not have public attention focused on it; nor that profane hands should be allowed to touch it. I cannot believe that this is a considered reaction. The Labour movement has always cherished education: free education, comprehensive education, adult education. Education for life. There is nothing wrong with non-educationalists, even a prime minister, talking about it again.\n<<<\n(quoted in [[What's new?|http://education.guardian.co.uk/thegreatdebate/story/0,9860,574638,00.html]], //The Guardian//, 16 October 2001 - full text on the [[http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page11326.asp|Number 10 website]])\n\n----\n\n''Futurelab - mention of OECD's vision of the purpose of schooling:''\n<<<\nWe need to start, then, by asking not ‘what buildings do we want?’ but instead ‘what sort of education do we want to see in future?’ We need to ask not ‘how many classrooms do we need?’ but ‘what sorts of learning relationships do we want to foster? What competencies do we want learners to develop? What tools and resources are available to us to support learning?’ Indeed, the OECD Schooling for Tomorrow4 group identified several dynamics that need to be taken into account when considering alternative models of learning and school systems. Immediate contextual dimensions, such as new partnerships with the community, wider cultural influences, as well as establishing clarity about critical learning factors, such as the role of the learner, the organisation and pedagogy, were all thought to be crucial.\n<<<\n([[What if...? Re-imagining learning spaces|http://www.futurelab.org.uk/research/opening_education/learning_spaces_01.htm]], October 2006)\n\n----\n\nFuturelab - insufficient debate r.e. the purpose of education. They suggest:\n<<<\nIn more detail, the purpose of an education system is to:\n*validate and recognise diverse sites of expertise and diverse forms of expertise that learners and communities bring into the educational system\n*widen awareness of different ways of living and knowing - and provide opportunities to explore these different ways\n*offer the tools to learners and families and communities to engage with the resources of an education system and a wider community:\n**communication\n**confidence\n**negotiation\n**networking\n**collaboration\n**planning\n**prediction\n*offer multiple communities and strategies for engaging with knowledge - towards pluralisation of options\n*offer tools to collate, reflect upon and link different learning experiences.\n*Donald Rumsfeld model of lifelong learning - preparing children to deal with the unknown unknowns.\n

Difference between data, information & knowledge:\n<<<\n"'Data' is a series of disconnected facts and observations. These may be converted to information by analysing, cross-referencing, selecting, sorting, summarising or in some other way organising the data. It take work to convert data into information... knowledge consists of an organised body of information, such information patterns form the basis of insights and judgements."\n<<<\nStonier (1983) - quoted in S. Dunn & V. Morgan, //The Impact of the Computer on Education: a course for teachers// (London, 1987)\n\n----\n\nDifference between ''education'' & ''training'':\n<<<\n"Training provides skills. Education provides meta-skills. Meta-skills are a sort of super-skill which allow one to acquire other skills more easily... Meta-skills allow one to obtain needed information and assimilate it readily even though the information is outside one's own expertise. The more educated one becomes, the more versatile one becomes."\n<<<\nStonier (1983) - quoted in S. Dunn & V. Morgan, //The Impact of the Computer on Education: a course for teachers// (London, 1987)\n\n----\n\nDefinitions of ''educational technology'':\n\n''National Council for Educational Technology for the United Kingdom (NCET)'' - "Educational technology is the development, application and evaluation of system, techniques and aids to improve the process of human learning." (p.9)\n\n''National Centre for Programmed Learning, UK'' - "Educational technology is the application of scientific knowledge about learning, and the conditions of learning, to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and learning." (p.9)\n\n''Commission on Instructional Technology, USA'' - "Educational technology is a systematic way of designing, implementing and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based on research in human learning and communication..." (p.9)\n\n*these all mention improving the efficiency of the learning process (p.10)\n\nH. Ellington, F. Percival & P. Race, //Handbook of Educational Technology// (London, 1993)\n\n----\n\nSchein (1985) - definition of ''culture'':\n<<<\n"a pattern of basic assumption that the group learned as it solved its problems... that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems."\n<<<\nquoted in C.T. Yip, P.S. Cheung & C.Sze, //Towards a Knowledge-creating School: a research project on paradigm shift of teaching and learning in IT education// (Hong Kong, 2004), p.40\n\n----\n\nA ''paradigm'' = the opposite of ''syntagm'' in linguistics and communication studies. A 'syntagm' is the actual manifestation of communication from a paradigm. All messages involve selection from a paradigm and combination into a syntagm (the idea of a university = a paradigm, the actual university = a syntagm).\n\nJ. Tiffin & L. Rajasingham, //The Global Virtual University// (London & New York, 2003), p.13\n\n----\n\nBeer (1992) - definition of ''paradigm'':\n<<<\n"I define a paradigm as a model that exhibits a closed logic. It means that our attempt to break out of a fixed pattern of thinking are constantly defeated by running headlong into our own premise."\n<<<\nquoted in J. Tiffin & L. Rajasingham, //The Global Virtual University// (London & New York, 2003), p.83\n\n----\n\nDefinition of ''culture'':\n<<<\n"By the culture of an educational institution we mean, as do social anthropologiests, the shared beliefs, attitudes and ways of behaving that give a social group its identity."\n<<<\nS. Ryan, et al, //The Virtual University: the Internet and Resource-Based Learning//; London, 2000), p.156\n\n----\n\nDifference begween ''sustainability'' and ''institutionalisation'':\n<<<\n"The term sustainability is often used interchangably with institutionalisation, and their meanings are similar. Institutionalization addreses the permanent use of a certain innovation such that it loses its identity and becomes a normative part of the organisation and its culture (Miles, 1983)... Sustainability is similar to institutionalisation and typically refers to an innovation that endures over time. With sustainability, the innovation typically does not lose its identity: rather, it becomes valued and supported as part of the institution's culture. (Schneider, Brief & Guzzo, 1996)"\n<<<\nBillig, Sherry & Havelock, 'Challenge 98: sustaining the work of a regional technology integration initiative' (//British Journal of Educational Technology//, 36:6, 2005), p.987\n\n----\n\n''Paradigm'' comes from Greek word 'paradeigma' meaning 'pattern'.\n\nG.F. Hoban, //Teacher Learning for Educational Change: a systems thinking approach// (OUP, 2002), p.6\n\n----\n\n''Technocratic discourse'' - "A discourse is considered “technocratic� when it focuses on means without taking into account the most fundamental question: “What are the aims (or visions) that these means are supposed to serve?�" \n\nA. Aviram, 'From "Computers in the Classroom" to mindful radical adaptation by education system to the emerging cyber culture' (//Journal of Educational Change//, 1, 2000), p.346\n\n----

This bit is for <<tag planning>>

* Einstein on the importance of history:\n<<<\nSomebody who reads only newspapers and at best the books of contemporary authors looks to me like an extremely nearsighted person who scorns eyeglasses. He is completely dependent on the prejudices and fashions of his times, since he never gets to see or hear anything else. And what a person thinks on his own without being stimulated by the thoughts and experiences of other people is even in the best case rather paltry and monotonous.\n\nThere are only a few enlightened people with a lucid mind and style and with good taste within a century. What has been preserved of their work belongs among the most precious possessions of mankind.\n\nNothing is more needed than to overcome the modernist’s snobbishness.\n<<<

Lesson plans for the teaching of <<tag ICT>>

[img[Amputation|http://teaching.mrbelshaw.co.uk/wiki/images/medicine.jpg]]\n\n!Introduction\n__Lesson 1 - Overview of the development of medicine from Prehistory to today__\n\n__Lesson 2 - What factors have been involved in the development of medicine?__\n\n__Lesson 3 - How do historians know how medicine has developed through time?__\n\n\n!Prehistoric Medicine\n\n\n!Ancient Egyptian Medicine\n__Lesson 1 - What did the Greeks believe caused disease and bad health?__\n\n__Lesson 2 - Why was the River Nile so important to the Ancient Egyptians?__\n\n__Lesson 3 - Was Egyptian medicine mainly natural or supernatural?__\n\n\n!Ancient Greek Medicine\n__Lesson 1 - What did the Greeks believe caused disease and bad health?__\n\n__Lesson 2 - What were Asclepions and why were they important to Greek medicine?__\n\n__Lesson 3 - Why was Hippocrates important in the history of medicine?__\n\n\n!Roman Medicine\n__Lesson 1 - What made people healthy or unhealthy in the Roman Empire?__\n//Lesson aim: To be able to match examples and explanations to factors affecting the development of medicine.//\n\n 1. Students write down date, title and aim of lesson (sample [[Powerpoint|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=270.msg444#msg444]])\n 2. Starter = Go through 'Odd One Out' activity with students - they need to say which of each three is the odd one out and why (go through answers when they've finished - give about 5-6 mins)\n 3. Introduce Roman public health in whatever way you wish.\n 4. Give out //What made people healthy or unhealthy in the Roman world?// sheets (available [[here|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=270.msg391#msg391]]) Go through sheets (read out as class if necessary)\n 5. Remind students of the factors in the development of medicine (war, science, communication, religion, etc.) - go through examples from the time periods already studied.\n 6. Model how to categorize information from the What made people healthy or unhealthy in the Roman world? sheets onto a factors diagram sheet (available [[here|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=270.msg443#msg443]]). Students then complete sheet. If they finish, give them a text book from which to add information to their diagram.\n 7. Plenary = Finish with a Q&A style game. [[Simpsons Snakes & Ladders|http://www.reviseonline.co.uk/teacher.html]] can be used if a projector/IWB is available for a more visual and 'game' feel. Ask questions about Roman Public Health followed by comparative questions about the time periods studied so far (e.g. 'Tell me a way in which the Romans were similar to the Ancient Egyptians?')\n\n__Lesson 2 - Who was Galen and why was he so famous in his time and for the next thousand years?__\n//Lesson aim: To decide why Galen's work was so influential in the development of medicine.//\n\n__Lesson 3 - Did the Romans just copy the Greeks' medical ideas?__\n//Lesson aim: To evaluate how different Greek and Roman medicine were from one another.//\n\n\n!Medieval European (Christian) Medicine\n__Lesson 1 - What impact did the Christian church have on the development of medicine?__\n\n__Lesson 2 - What were medieval cures to general illness?__\n\n__Lesson 3 - How was the Black Death interpreted by medieval people?__\n\n\n!Medieval Islamic Medicine\n__Lesson 1 - Who were the leading figures in Islamic medicine?__\n\n__Lesson 2 - Was Islamic medicine more advanced than Christian medicine?__\n//Aim: To decide whether Islamic or Christian medicine was the most developed in the Middle Ages.//\n\n*Students copy down date, title and aim of lesson.\n*Starter = Keyword Bingo - Canopic Jars, River Nile, Galen, Hippocrates, Medicine Man, Alexandria (using blank sheets available [[here|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=92.0]])\n*Go through Islamic vs. Christian medicine Powerpoint (available [[here|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=358.0]])\n*Divide class into groups of 3-4. Give out information on Islamic and Christian medicine, along with Islamic vs. Christian medicine comparison grids (available [[here|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=347.0]])\n*Students fill in grids in groups. Feed back to class.\n*If finished, go through how to make a mind map of information. Students then create mind map.\n*Plenary = Blockbusters r.e. medicine knowledge so far (available [[here|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=359]])\n\n__Lesson 3 - Was religion a help or hinderance in the development of medicine?__\n\n\n!Renaissance Medicine\n__Lesson 1 - Who was Ambroise Pare?__\n\n\n__Lesson 2 - Why was Andreas Vesalius important in the development of medicine?__\n//Aim: To be able to explain the importance of Vesalius in the development of medicine.//\n\nResources: [[Powerpoint|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=390]], p.56-57 of blue //Essential Medicine// textbook (photocopied)\n\n*Starter = Odd One Out\n*Think, Pair, Share r.e. examples of factors in the development of medicine\n*Go through life of Vesalius using A3 photocopied sheets from blue //Essential Medicine// books\n*Students create mind-map r.e. Vesalius using base from Powerpoint ([[resource|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=389.0]])\n*Extension = creating timeline/cartoon strip of the life of Vesalius\n*Plenary = whiteboard challenge ([[how to play|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=90.0]])\n\n\n__Lesson 3 - For what was William Harvey famous?__\n//Aim: To be able to explain the contribution of Harvey to the development of medicine.//\n\nResources: [[Powerpoint|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=392.0]], Print-out of [[William Harvey's page at Wikipedia|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Harvey]]\n\n*Starter = Keyword Challenge (students have to write down as many keywords as they can think of in a specified time)\n*Introduce William Harvey using Powerpoint and any other materials available\n*Recap factors in development of medicine\n*Show //Why did Harvey make discoveries when he did?// diagram - link to factors\n*Introduce concept of [[Wikipedia|http://en.wikipedia.org]] and [[Simplified Wikipedia|http://simple.wikipedia.org]] to those unaware. \n*Students create simplified Wikipedia entry using main version and any other info available.\n*Plenary = students create mnemonic using William Harvey's surname (see [[Powerpoint|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=392.0]])\n\n!Germ Theory\n__Lesson 1 - What was vaccination and how was it discovered?__\n\n__Lesson 2 - How did Pasteur's germ theory change medical procedures?__\n\n\n!Surgery\n__Lesson 1 - How did the development of anaesthetics help the development of medicine?__\n\n__Lesson 2 - What are antiseptics and how did they improve medical procedures in the 19th century?__\n\n\n!Nursing\n__Lesson 1 - Who were Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole?__\n\n__Lesson 2 - Why do we remember Florence Nightingale instead of Mary Seacole?__\n\n\n!Public Health\n\n\n!20th Century Medicine\n__Lesson 1 - Why did the British government start taking an interest in the health of the nation?__\n\n__Lesson 2 - How and why did the health of British people improve between 1900 and 1950?__\n\n__Lesson 3 - What factors were involved in the development of penicillin?__

*[[Toot Hill School|http://www.toothill.notts.sch.uk/html/dept/hist/gcserev.asp]] - PDFs of useful resources for medicine\n*[[Brooke Weston City Technology College|http://www.bwctc.northants.sch.uk/html/schwork/revision/gcse/history/contents.html]] - useful notes r.e. medicine

__Lesson 1 - What shall we learn in History this year?__\n//Aim: To discover what topics we shall be covering in History this year.//\n\n 1. Distribute books, etc. as needed, introduce self and expectations.\n 2. Students copy down date, title and aim of lesson.\n 3. ''Starter'' = Q&A r.e. subjects covered in History in primary school (write these onto the board)\n 4. In pairs/threes, students decide in which order these time periods came (Vikings, Tudors, Victorians, etc.) Extension = writing down approximate dates.\n 5. Go through which topics being covered in History this year - students write these into their books and draw a little picture next to each (and colour in if time)\n 6. Question generator activity - what would students like to learn about in the topics we shall be studying? (target = 10 questions)\n 7. Feed back questions to class. Discussions.\n 8. ''Plenary'' = game with questions involving expectations and content of lesson. (e.g. [[Save the Simpsons|http://www.reviseonline.co.uk/teacher.html]] or [[Simpsons Snakes & Ladders|http://www.reviseonline.co.uk/teacher.html]])\n\n__Lesson 2 - What do historians mean by 'chronology'?__\n//Aim: To be able to define chronology and put B.C. and A.D. dates in the correct order.//\n\n__Lesson 3 - Timelines and scale__\n\n__Lesson 4 - Anachronisms__\n\n__Lesson 5 - Dividing up the Past__\n\n__Lesson 6 - What is bias?__\n\n__Lesson 7 - The Dustbin__\n\n__Lesson 8 - Who was Tollund Man?__

These lesson outlines are based around //The American West, 1840-1895// by Dave Martin and Colin Shephard. Page numbers are provided, where appropriate...\n\n[img[Buffalo Skin|http://teaching.mrbelshaw.co.uk/wiki/images/american_west.jpg]]\n\n!Who were the Plains Indians?\n__Lesson 1 - What was the 'American West' and why should I be bothered?__\n//Aim = To gain an overview of the course and reasons for doing a depth study.//\n\n''Resources:'' [[Powerpoint presentation|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=407.0]], Overview lesson outlines \n\n*Starter = 'My Prejudices' mind-map (model first using PPT)\n*Go through reasons for doing Depth Study (find out more about attitudes and ideas, challenge defective ways of thinking, broaden horizons, etc.)\n*Give out overview lesson outlines for students to stick at front/back of books\n*Title page 'American West - Depth Study'\n*Go through text book - way it is set out, glossary, structure of course, etc.\n*Video clip (if time)\n*Plenary = Question generator activity - what do students want to get answers to?\n\n__Lesson 2 - Who were the Plains Indians and where did they come from?__\n//Aim = To be able to explain why the Plains Indians lived where they did.//\n\n''Resources:'' Google Earth flyover, [[Powerpoint|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=407.msg646#msg646]], [[information for groupwork and recording sheet|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=431]], [[Timeline of American West|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=117.0]]\n\n*Starter = Students put dates r.e. American West timeline in correct order (timeline for homework)\n*Go through Bering Strait theory r.e. how Plains Indians came to be in America (use Google Earth flyover)\n*Q&A\n*Divide into groups of 3-4 and give information sources. Point out provenance of each one. Go through group work task - students have to look through information, decide whether to trust it based on where it comes from and whether it is corroborated (backed-up) by another source.\n*Students complete group work task.\n*Plenary = feedback to class - what have they learnt?\n\n''Homework: Turn dates & events from starter activity into timeline''\n\n\n__Lesson 3 - How did the Plains Indians adapt to their surroundings?__\n//Aim = To be able to name five ways in which the Plains Indians adapted to their environment.//\n\n''Resources:'' Powerpoint, American West textbooks, [[blank map of North America|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=428.0]]\n\n*Starter = 'go for five' on scalping picture (in Powerpoint)\n*Read through p.15 of textbook as class.\n*Give out copies of [[this chart|http://library.thinkquest.org/J0110072/navigation/native_american_chart.htm]] and [[blank map of North America|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=428.0]]\n*Show [[map of Native American tribes|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=429.0]]\n*Students find tribe (from chart) on map and put onto own blank map. Draw arrows coming off showing how each adapted and any other relevant information about them. Should also shade according to type of land - p.12 of textbooks (will need to model this first)\n*Students brainstorm answer to 'how did Native Americans adapt to life in North America?'\n*Students write answer to question\n*Plenary = students volunteer to read out answers, then Q&A ([[Save the Simpsons|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=37.0]]?)\n\n\n\n!The Daily Life of the Sioux\n__Lesson 4 - What were tipis and how did they reflect how the Plains Indians lived?__\n//Aim = To draw and label a tipi, explaining how the Plains Indians lived in one.//\n\n*Starter = Brainstorm about what would make the perfect portable house (qualities)\n*Read through p.16-17 of textbook as class. Q&A\n*Give students copy of Source 1 (drawing of tipi) - point out features (use Task 1 as guide)\n*Explain how to approach Task 2 and Task 3 (extended writing)\n*Plenary = Penalty Shootout (using generator) or similar game (factual knowledge)\n\n\n\n__Lesson 5 - How were Plains Indians families and tribes organized?__\n//Aim = To gain an overview of attitudes towards children, old people, women and warfare.//\n\n\n\n__Lesson 6 - How dependent were the Plains Indians on buffalo?__\n//Aim = To be able to explain how the life of Plains Indians revolved around buffalo.//\n\n''Resources:'' Video clip of buffalo stampede, buffalo diagram, blank newspaper front page\n\n*Starter = comparison of pictures on p.22-23 - what is different and why? (answer: buffalo)\n*Show video clip of buffalo stampede\n*Read through p.24-25 as class - go through activity on p.25\n*Go through buffalo diagram on p.26-27\n*Students copy info from buffalo diagram onto own picture\n*Students start making newspaper front page about how Plains Indians hunted the buffalo\n*Plenary = brainstorm of at least 5 ways in which Plains Indians relied on buffalo\n\n\n\n__Lesson 7 - How warlike were the Sioux?__\n//Aim = To be able to explain the attitude and practices of the Plains Indians r.e. warfare.//\n\n__Lesson 8 - How important were horses to the Plains Indians?__\n//Aim = To draw a graph of the distribution of horses across the Great Plains and describe how the Plains Indians initially acquired horses.//\n\n__Lesson 9 - How religious were the Sioux?__\n//Aim = To create a mindmap of the religious beliefs of the Plains Indians.//\n\n__Lesson 10 - Who treated sick Plains Indians?__\n//Aim = To use knowledge of medical procedures in other time periods to examine the medical practices of the Plains Indians.//\n\n__Lesson 11 - What were the important events in the life of a Plains Indian?__\n//Aim = To play a board game to gain a greater understanding of what everyday life was like for Plains Indians.//\n\n__Lesson 12 - What were Sioux villages like?__\n//Aim = To evaluate sources in order to compare our life with that of the Plains Indians.//\n\n\n!The Attitudes of Outsiders towards the Plains Indians\n__Lesson 13 - How did outsiders view the Plains Indians?__\n//Aim = To compare and contrast accounts of the Plains Indians.//\n\n__Lesson 14 - Why was land a big problem between the Plains Indians and the White Man?__\n//Aim = To compare and contrast different attitudes towards nature and land.//\n\n__Lesson 15 - What was 'Manifest Destiny' and how did affect the attitude of the White Man towards Plains Indians?__\n//Aim = To be able to explain the concept of Manifest Destiny.//\n\n\n!Why did the early pioneers cross the Plains?\n__Lesson 16 - Who were the 'mountain men' and why did they go west?__\n//Aim = To be able to give three reasons why some people decided to move west.//\n\n__Lesson 17 - What were the 'push' and 'pull' factors which made people go west?__\n//Aim = To describe different groups and the different factors which led them to travel across the Great Plains.//\n\n__Lessons 18 + 19 - What was it like to travel west?__\n//Aim = To develop empathy for pioneers who travelled to California.//\n\n__Lesson 20 - How did the California Gold Rush affect the west?__\n//Aim = To be able to describe five effects that the gold rush had upon life in the west.//\n\n__Lesson 21 - Why were the Mormons unpopular in the east?__\n//Aim = To be able to explain what polygamy means and how the Mormons were driven westward.//\n\n__Lesson 22 - Why did the Mormons succeed in the West__\n//Aim = To be able to give three reasons for Mormon success.//\n\n\n!How did the homesteaders and ranchers settle the Plains?\n__Lesson 23 - Why did homesteaders want to settle on the Plains?__\n//Aim = To be able to give three reasons why homesteaders settled on the Plains.//\n\n__Lesson 24 - How did homesteaders survive on the Plains?__\n//Aim = To write a diary account of everyday life and problems as a homesteader on the Plains.//\n\n__Lesson 25 - How were the major problems of life on the Great Plains overcome?__\n//Aim = To create a poster showing solutions to everyday problems.//\n\n__Lesson 26 - How important was the role of women in homesteading?__\n//Aim = To gain an overview of the role of women in homesteads.//\n\n__Lesson 27 - How did the cattle industry develop?__\n//Aim = To discover how the ranchers rounded up and sold buffalo for profit.//\n\n__Lesson 28 - How did ranching change on the Plains?__\n//Aim = To chart the development of the way buffalo were herded on the Plains.//\n\n__Lessons 29 + 30 - Who were cowboys and what was their life like?__\n//Aim = To use sources to gain an overview of a cowboy's life.//\n\n__Lesson 31 - Why was there conflict between cattle ranchers and homesteaders?__\n//Aim = To give reasons for conflict for two different groups on the Plains.//\n\n__Lesson 32 - What was the Johnson County War?__\n//Aim = To be able to explain the causes, events and results of the conflict between ranchers and homesteaders.//\n\n\n!How wild was the West?\n__Lesson 33 - Was the West 'wild'?__\n//Aim = To use sources to decide how wild the West actually was.//\n\n__Lesson 34 - Why was there lawlessness or violence in the West?__\n//Aim = To be able to give five reasons why the Wild West got its name.//\n\n__Lesson 35 + 36 - What was the 'American West' and why should I be bothered?__\n//Aim = To gain an overview of the course and reasons for doing a depth study.//\n\n__Lesson 37 - Billy the Kid: hero or killer?__\n//Aim = To decide whether Billy the Kid was a hero or just another killer.//\n\n__Lesson 38 - What were Wild West towns like?__\n//Aim = To gain an understanding of life in Abilene, a 'cow town'.//\n\n\n!What role did the US army play in the defeat of the Plains Indians?\n__Lesson 39 - How did conflict on the Plains develop?__\n//Aim = To create a timeline of Plains conflict.//\n\n__Lesson 40 - What role did the US army play in the defeat of the Plains Indians?__\n//Aim = To use sources to support an argument whether to 'negotiate' or 'exterminate' the Plains Indians.//\n\n__Lesson 41 + 42 - Why did the Sioux go to war?__\n//Aim = To be able to explain the chain of events that led to the Plains Indians going to war against the US army.//\n//Aim = To analyze the results of the Plains Indians going to war.//\n\n__Lesson 43 - How well equipped was the US army for war?__\n//Aim = To come to an opinion as to how well equipped the US army was for war.//\n\n__Lesson 44 + 45 - Was Custer responsible for the defeat of the US army at the Battle of the Little Bighorn?__\n//Aim = To decide whether Custer lost the battle for the US army.//\n\n__Lesson 46 - Was Crazy Horse a great American hero?__\n//Aim = To analyze sources to decide whether Crazy Horse should be remembered as an American hero.//\n\n\n!How did the USA destroy the Indian way of life?\n__Lesson 47 - How did the destruction of buffalo herds destroy the Plains Indians' way of life?__\n//Aim = To decide whether the destruction of buffalo herds was a deliberate government policy.//\n\n__Lesson 48 - How were reservations used to control the Plains Indians?__\n//Aim = To be able to list five ways in which reservations altered the Plains Indians' way of life.//\n\n__Lesson 49 - What was the 'Ghost Dance'?__\n//Aim = To give reasons why the Ghost Dance became popular 1889-90.//\n\n\n!Conclusion\n__Lesson 50 - How did the Indians lose, or the settlers gain, control of the Great Plains?__\n//Aim = To evaluate what we have learned.//

!Who were the Romans?\n\n!How did the Romans think of themselves?\n\n!How did the Roman empire expand and decline?\n\n!Why was the Roman Army so important?\n//Aim: To create a job advert for a Roman soldier.//\n\n''Resources:'' Schoolhistory.co.uk - [[KS3 Romans resources|http://www.schoolhistory.co.uk/year7links/romans_worksheets.shtml]] - //The Roman Army//, //Join the Army// worksheet, //Join the Army cards//, and //Roman Army wordsearch//\n\n*Starter = Brainstorm/mind-map of what makes a good soldier\n*Q&A - why did the Romans need good soldiers?\n*Show Powerpoint and go through different types of Roman soldier, etc.\n*Think, Pair, Share r.e. how to 'sell' the Roman army to new recruits (use //Join the Army cards// for ideas)\n*Students come up with job advert for Roman soldier (can use //Join the Army// resource for this if necessary)\n*If finished, give Roman Army wordsearch \n*Plenary = [[Save the Simpsons|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=37.0]] or similar Q&A-style game\n\n\n!How do Roman numerals work?\n//Aim: To be able to count to 1000 in Roman numerals.//\n\n''Resources:'' Powerpoint, Roman numerals sheets\n\n*Starter = Brainstorm all the places Roman numerals are found (end of BBC TV programmes, watches, etc.)\n*Give out Roman numeral sheets and go through with class - how does it work? (I goes before V to make IV = 4, etc.)\n*Students write out some rules to help them remember how Roman numerals work.\n*Set students some simple sums using Roman numerals.\n*Extension = poster showing how Roman numerals work.\n*Plenary = Penalty Shootout\n\n\n!What was life like as a Roman gladiator?\n//Aim: To develop skills of empathy for historical figures.//\n\n''Resources:'' [[Gladiator Interview worksheet|http://www.schoolhistory.co.uk/year7links/romans_worksheets.shtml]], Powerpoint\n\n*Starter = \n*Show video clip(s) of Roman gladiators\n*Q&A - what do students want to know about gladiators?\n*Introduce 'Interview with a Gladiator' activity\n*Students complete interview prompt sheets and then write up neatly\n*Can act out if time (as if on 'Roman TV')\n*Plenary = \n\n!Why are there Roman remains left in Britain?\n\n!Why was Latin spoken throughout Europe?\n\n!What was England like before 1066?\n\n!Why did the Roman empire collapse?\n//To be able to show how and why the Roman Empire was taken over and fell apart.//\n\n*Starter =\n*Refer back to original map showing Roman Empire at its height - Q&A r.e. how Romans had taken over. What would some of the problems have been with an empire of that size?\n*Show maps of how the Barbarians, Goths, etc. took over.\n*Introduce activity - using map similar to original one + info sheet, students plot movement of various tribes.\n*\n\n!Why were the Saxons farmers?

* Everyone in the edublogosphere at the moment seems to be either eating their own tail or someone else's. Original thoughts - where?\n* Need an RSS reader which can deal with every type of enclosure\n\n__Thesis__\n*Teachers need to be more like PhD supervisors - know the //area// but not necessarily the specific topic inside out. No real problem with that - why should today's learners only learn what was available and around yesterday when teachers were at school/university?\n*Schools moving towards Rorty's ethnocentrism? (i.e. something is true for that particular community, but not for others)\n*Dewey rejected subject-based schooling in favour of problem-solving. Find some decent quotations, etc.\n*Aristotle - 'we should not expect more precision than the subject-matter admits' - how can this be applied to school change, models of learning and curriculum development/change/revolution?\n*What kind of Hegelian thesis-anthesis-synthesis is going on in education at the moment?\n*What exactly //is// a 'balanced curriculum? (c.f. Carr, p.136)\n*Mustn't confuse //forms of knowledge// with school //subjects// (c.f. Carr, p.139)\n*Quasi-pragmatist approach to education = best way forward? (synthesis of instrumentalism and teleological views) - c.f. Carr, ch.8\n*''Wisdom'' is a kind of //meta-knowledge//, a way of applying ideas across subject boundaries and disciplines. How does our definition of wisdom change in an era of connectivism? Can wisdom reside in networks instead of groups?

<<<\nLearning is not development; however, properly organized learning results in mental development and sets in motion a variety of developmental processes that would be impossible apart from learning\n<<<\nVygotsky, 1978 - quoted in A. Stetsenko & I. Arievitch, 'Teaching, Learning, and Development: A Post-Vygotskian Perspective' (in G. Wells & G. Claxton (eds.), //Learning for Life in the 21st Century//, Oxford, 2002), p.84

*Abbott, C., [[Writing the Visual]]\n*Abbott, J. & Ryan, T., [[The Unfinished Revolution]]\n*Barton, D. & Hamilton, M. [[Literacy Practices]]\n*Beavis, C., [[Computer games, culture and curriculum]]\n*Beavis, C., [[Reading, Writing and Role-playing Computer Games]]\n*Bigum, C., [[Design Sensibilities, Schools and the New Computing and Communication Technologies]]\n*Bredo, E., [[Philosophies of Educational Research]]\n*Bryman, A., [[Social Research Methods]]\n*Burbules, N.C. & B.R. Warnick, [[Philosophical Inquiry]]\n*Burbules, N.C., [[Rhetorics of the Web]]\n*Burbules, N.C., [[The Web as a Rhetorical Place]]\n*Burnett, R., [[Technology, Learning and Visual Culture]]\n*Burniske, R.W. & Monke, L., [[Breaking Down the Digital Walls]]\n*Carneiro, R., [[The New Frontiers of Education]]\n*Carr, D., [[Making Sense of Education]]\n*Chaiklin, S., [[A Developmental Teaching Approach to Schooling]]\n*Claxton, G., [[Education for the Learning Age]]\n*Claxton, G., [[Wise Up: learning to live the learning life]]\n*Connelly, F.M. & D.J. Clandinin, [[Narrative Inquiry]]\n*Cromer, A. [[Connected Knowledge: Science, Philosophy, and Education]]\n*Dalin, P. & Rust, V.D., [[Towards Schooling for the Twenty-First Century]]\n*Davis, A. & K. Williams, [[Epistemology and Curriculum]]\n*Delors, J. [[Choices for education: the political factor]]\n*Delors, J. [[Education: the necessary Utopia]]\n*Delors, J. [[The Four Pillars of Education]]\n*Delors, J. [[Teachers in search of new perspectives]]\n*Douglas, J.Y., [[Will the most reflexive relativist please stand up]]\n*Eraut, M. (ed.), [[Education and the Information Society]]\n*Eyman, D., [[Digital Literac(ies), Digital Discourses, and Communities of Practice]]\n*Friedman, T.L., [[The World is Flat]]\n*Genishi, C. & T. Glupczynski, [[Language and Literacy Research: Multiple Methods and Perspectives]]\n*Gilster, P., [[Digital Literacy]]\n*Glaser, R. [[Expert Knowledge and Processes of Thinking]]\n*Graham, G., [[The Internet: a philosophical inquiry]]\n*Grossman, P.L. & Stodolsky, S.S., [[Content as Context: the role of school subjects in secondary school teaching]]\n*Hawisher, G.E. & Selfe, C.L., [[Reflections on computers and composition studies at the century's end]]\n*Hogan, P. & R. Smith, [[The Activity of Philosophy and the Practice of Education]]\n*Johnson-Eilola, J., [[Living on the surface]]\n*Kellner, D.M., [[Technological Revolution, Multiple Literacies, and the Restructuring of Education]]\n*Kress, G., [[Visual and verbal modes of representation in electronically mediated communication]]\n*Lemke, J.L., [[Becoming the Village]]\n*Levin, B. & Riffel, J.A., [[Schools and the Changing World]]\n*Martin, A., [[Towards e-literacy]]\n*McCormick, R., [[Practical Knowledge: A View from the Snooker Table]]\n*Muller, J., [[Reclaiming Knowledge]]\n*OECD, [[The Curriculum Redefined: schooling for the 21st century]]\n*Reffell, P., [[IT Skills are not enough]]\n*Rodríguez Illera, J.L., [[Digital Literacies]]\n*Smith, R. & Curtin, P., [[Children, computers and life online]]\n*Snyder, I., [[Beyond the hype: reassessing hypertext]]\n*Snyder, I., [[Communication, Imagination, Critique - Literacy Education for the Electronic Age]]\n*Snyder, I., [[Page to Screen]]\n*Snyder, I., [[Silicon Literacies]]\n*Stetsenko, A. & I. Arievitch, [[Teaching, Learning and Development]]\n*Stoll Dalton, S. & R.G. Tharp, [[Standards for Pedagogy]]\n*Town, J.S., [[Information Literacy: definition, measurement, impact]]\n*Tuman, M., [[Word Perfect: literacy in the computer age]]

''A.Stetsenko & I. Arievitch, 'Teaching, Learning, and Development: A Post-Vygotskian Perspective' (in G. Wells & G. Claxton, //Learning for Life in the 21st Century//, Oxford, 2002)\n''\n''p.87'' - Learning of language opens up "new levels of thinking, self-regulation and mentality" - changes a child's //being// - c.f. technological literacy?\n\n''p.89'' - __Gal-perin__: need for 'cultural tools' for children to be able to develop mentally. In most schools,\n<<<\n...children are not given tools that enable them to construct their actions in a form that is most conducive to the efficient transformation of [their] actions into the instruments of mind. Instead, school children are often faced with fragmented, poorly generalized phenomena that are supposed to be learned by simply memorizing them.\n<<<\n\n''p.95'' - Children not only need to acquire rules and facts //(declarative knowledge)// but also 'procedures of how and where to apply knowledge' //(procedural knowledge)//\n\n

''S. Chaiklin, 'A Developmental Teaching Approach to Schooling' (in G. Wells & G. Claxton (eds.), //Learning for Life in the 21st Century//, Oxford, 2002)''\n\n''p.168'' - Reason for schools being set up = control and influence over thinking and personality:\n<<<\nObligatory schooling was first created and maintained by European states in order to develop the personalities of children in relation to the state... That original nationalist interest is still evident in contemporary school systems.\n<<<\n\n''p.168-9'' - Personality is 'learned' along with subject matter at school:\n<<<\nPersonality is developed through the acquisition of psychological capabilities in relation to societally meaningful practices. These psychological functions are not developed in a general or abstract way, but only through working with specific substantive content - subject-matter content in the case of schooling. Therefore, subject-matter teaching that develops learning activity for specific contents is fundamental for the development of personality.\n<<<\n\n''p.170-1'' - Curriculum development should be carried in coordination with subject-matter analysis in order to link 'the general to the specific':\n<<<\n...considerations of what disciplines should be included in a school programme and what topics should be taught for the selected diciplines... cannot be done without at least an informal or superficial subject-matter analysis... Ideally, one would want curricular decisions to be based on a more systematic consderation of subject-matter knowledge and its relations to societal practices.\n<<<\n\n''p.171'' - 'Global curricular questions' are usually already decided and institutionalized in various ways - i.e. national curriculum, examination demands, textbooks, etc. They are therefore 'beyond the grasp of classroom teachers.'

''S. Stoll Dalton & R.G. Tharp, 'Standards for Pedagogy: Research, Theory and Practice' (in G. Wells & G. Claxton, //Learning for Life in the 21st Century//, Oxford, 2002)''\n\n''p.181'' - Dominant pedagogy in industrialized countries is whole-class instruction, yet research shows that the most effective forms of learning involve:\n<<<\n...the learner's interaction with materials and activity [occurring] primarily in a social context of relationships. In fact, that social context is the major constituent of the activity itself. As people (adults and children) act and talk together, minds are under constant construction, parituclarly for the novice and the young. The social processes by which minds are formed must be understood as the very stuff of education.\n<<<\n(goes on to talk r.e. Vygotskian ZPD)\n\n''p.182'' - 5 standards of the CHAT (Cultural Historical Activity Theory) programme:\n#Joint Productive Activity - teachers and student producing together (JPA)\n#Developing Language and Literacy Across the Curriculum (LLD)\n#Making Meaning - connecting school to students' lives (MM)\n#Teaching Complex Thinking - Cognitive Challenge (CC)\n#Teaching Through Instructional Conversation (IC)\n\n''p.183-192'' - (examples of the 5 standards)\n\n\n

''J.L. Lemke, 'Becoming the Village: Education Across Lives' (in G. Wells & G. Claxton (eds.), //Learning for Life in the 21st Century//, Oxford, 2002)''\n\n''p.35-6'' - Schools should be like villages:\n<<<\nWe may prefer one particular way of working, but becuase we must work together, we must also learn how to collaborate. Some of us prefer telling stories, others liek to argue; some like to draw, others prefer building things; but we must all learn how our words and their pictures can be combined, and how building gets connected to drawing and to telling. We become individuals who liek and prefer, but we always also gradually become in a larger sense the whole village. We learn to take part by learning how parts fit together. Over time we learn that there is nothing worthwhile we can do without a tool someone else has made, without combining ways of working we're comfortable with and ways we're not but others are, without taking into account viewpoints that are unfamiliar or unpleasant, without finding a way through conflict. What we do when we learn is to enter into social activities.\n<<<\n\n''p.35-6'' - Purpose of learning = to be able to put what is learned into practice, or to apply it:\n<<<\nWhen we start from the concept of learning alone, we tend to think only of the person who learns and to forget that //what// we learn is how to live successfully in a world of other people, and //how// we learn is by participating in the activities of our community. When we think of learning as something that happens now, we may forget that learning only has value if it lasts long enough to be put to use, and that we know much less about changes in behaviour that accumulate over the years than we do about what happens in a minute or an hour.\n<<<\n\n''p.36-7'' - Cultural factors shape everything we do - even when learning 'alone':\n<<<\nParticipation in socially meaningful activities is not just what we learn, it is also how we learn. Even if we are alone, reading a book, the activity of reading - knowing which end to start at, whether to read a page left-to-right or right-to-left, top-down or bottom-up, and how to turn the pages, not to mention making sense of a language, a writing system, an authorial style, a genre forma (e.g. a dictionary vs. a novel) - depends on conducting the activity in a way that is culturally meaningful to us. Even if we are lost in the woods, with no material tools, trying to find our way or just make sense of the plants or stars, we are still engaged in making meanings with cultural tools such as language (names of flowers or constellations) or learned genres of visual images (flower drawings or star maps). We extend forms of activity that we have learned by previous social participation to our present lonely situation.\n<<<\n\n''p.37'' - Problem is that simplifying something that is supposed to be the first rung on a ladder to something else is that it becomes too disconnected from the thing to which it is supposed to lead onto:\n<<<\nThe strategy of schooling, in fact, always runs the risk of school becoming too unlike professional practice: a bridge to nowhere.\n<<<\n\n''p.41'' - Identities aren't just formed at school - but curricula take no account of this:\n<<<\nAn identity... has to be nurtured, by us and by others, in more parts of the day than a single classroom hour, outside school as well as inside, after school and after schooling. But our curricula are not designed in these terms; we believe in teaching knowledge, rather than building character. In most education there is no real effort to integrate experiences in school and outside of school; indeed the academic curriculum all but rejects as worthless or irrelevant nearly all that happens to students outisde of school.\n<<<\n\n''p.43'' - Schools should not be merely inward-looking 'micro-villages', but should be relevant to wider cultures:\n<<<\nStudents in schools today are deeply alienated from the curriculum. For many students school presents an alternate reality that bears no obvious connection to the rest of their lives. Some take it on faith that obedient conformity will lead to later financial rewards; many are justly sceptical as to whether that promise applies to them. Schools as institutions are isolated from the mainstream of both public and private life. Far from helping students to understand the village in which they live, schools become micro-villages in their own right, with their own typical activities that are only distantly related to those outside. The range of activities that occur in schools is narrow and impoverished in its diversity compared to the activities that define the reality of the larger village.\n<<<\n\n''p.44'' - No 'real world' learning going on in schools:\n<<<\nIs it wrong to describe schools as buildings consisting of empty rooms where too many children and too few adults talk about or enact pale simulations of the rich and varied activities of the community around them, rather than actually observing or participating in those activities?\n<<<\n\n''p.44'' - Need for planning in schools for continuity and intellectual development:\n<<<\nOrganizationally, schools minimize the opportunity for long-term intellectual and identity development by severing the bonds between teacher and student every several months, disconnecting the study of each subject from all the others, and even dividing the day into periods defined by a clock rather than by the needs of learning. The whole point of intellectual and identity development is to learn to integrate experience over progressively longer time-scales, but the institutional arrangements of schooling seem deliberately designed to thwart this effort. How often do students get the opportunity to engage in sustained learning projects that stretch their abilities to organize activity across longer time-scales? And what kinds of projects could engage the interest and attention of students on these longer scales?\n<<<\n\n''p.45'' - New technologies will eventually replace the need for some classroom instruction:\n<<<\nNew technologies can often do the job of simulating and talking about the typical activities of the community far better than the average teacher in the average classroom. Technologies will not, however, be able to substitute for direct participation, nor will they be able to replace thoughtful guidance of students' critical reflection and analysis, nor the emotional encouragement of achievement and creativity that live teachers provide.\n<<<\n\n''p.45'' - Collaborative, negotatiated learning is the way forward:\n<<<\nSchools will become places where students and their teachers decide together what comes next: collaborative projects, participatory internships, multimedia study modules, specialized learning activities, places to see and things to do. Students will participate in online peer-discussion groups, in cross-age groups where they can learn from older students and teach younger ones, and they will also have online access to a wide range of part-time mentors who mainly live and work in the world outside schools.\n<<<\n\n

''G. Claxton, 'Education for the Learning Age: A Sociocultural Approach to Learning to Learn' (in G. Wells & G. Claxton (eds.), //Learning for Life in the 21st Century//, Oxford, 2002)''\n\n''p.22-3'' - Education is concerned with morality - educators have to make value judgements r.e. how learners' minds should be shaped:\n<<<\nEducation is essentially a moral enterprise. It maps out courses of learning that are designed to give people knowledge, skills, attitudes and qualities that are deemed to be worth having. Educators are in the business of making value judgements about what kinds of minds people need, and are therefore to be cultivated... At root, school exists to equip young people with the knowledge, capabilities and dispositions which they will need to cope well in the world that they are going, as adults, to inhabit.\n<<<\n\n''p.23'' - Education depends on the future that the educators believe is going to obtain:\n<<<\nBut it also depends on whether the elders see their world as stable or changing, and on their image of the future. The goals of education are relative to the future which the 'elders' of a society forsee (Cole, 1996). If that future is imagined accurately, and the curriculum is appropriate, the ensuing education will be empowering. If the methods are ineffective, or if they develop skills that are unequal or inappropriate to the demands of the real world-to-be, then education fails. In a stable society, yesterday's education, if it was well designed originally, will do for the citizens of tomorrow. But if a culture is undergoing radical change, the demands of the future cannot be clearly predicted, and a different kind of preparation is required. If the main thing we know about the future is that we do know much about it, then the key responsibility for the educator is not to give young people tools that may be out of date before they have even been fully mastered, but to help them become confident and competent designers and makers of their own tools as they go along.\n<<<\n\n''p.23'' - Problems occur if educators do not realise need for change:\n<<<\nFor a culture that is moving rapidly into a period of instability and uncertainty, and of increasing individual opportunity and responsibility for dealing with those demands, an imaginative reappraisal of methods and priorities becomes essential. If this challenge is ducked, the young will flounder (Claxton, 1999).\n<<<\n\n''p.24-5'' - Notions of 'epistemitc mentality', 'epistemic identity', and 'epistemic milieu':\n*//Epistemic mentality// = "someone's accumulated ways of knowing, learning strategies and styles, and their habits of mind."\n*//Epistemic identity// = "the person's view of themselves as a learner and knower: what they are good and bad at learning; what is worth knowing; what say they have in the generation and evaluation of knowledge and expertise; and so on."\n*//Epistemic milieu// = "those aspects of the cultural world that impact most powerfully or directly on the development of epistemic mentality and identity."\n\n''p.27'' - What schools should become:\n<<<\nSchools should become 'communities of practice' where the predominant practice is 'learning'... and where, concomitantly, the 'elders' of the community are themselves exemplary learners, and skilled coaches of the arts and crafts of learning.\n<<<\n\n''p.29'' - Schools need to develop a culture which encourages the development of 'learning how to learn':\n<<<\nCultures that talk of learning as itself learnable, and which value engagement and tenacity as much as achievement and success... encourage the development of an epistemic mentality that is more robust and an epistemic identity that is more secture. Thus the informal language that teachers and parents use to comment on success, failure and difficulty embodies and conveys and view of learning and knowing which takes up residence in youngsters' minds, channelling the development of their learning dispositions, and influencing how their learning capabilities are expressed and developed.\n<<<\n\n''p.30'' - Educational institutions privilege some kinds of epistemic menalities and identities:\n<<<\nEducational institutions... differ in the extent to which they provide opportunities for a wide range of epistemic tools to be expressed, exercised and developed. They privilege certain ways of learning and knowing, and marginalize or stigmatize others. For example, the role of intuition in learning tends to be undervalued, and therefore under-exercised, in schools.\n<<<\n\n''p.31'' - Andy Hargreaves (1994) draws on anthropologist Edward Hall's (1984) distinction between two different approaches to time - //monochronic// and //polychronic//:\n<<<\nIn a monochronic culture, tasks are clearly defined and tackled sequentially according to a predetermined timetable. there is a clear sense of the kinds of interactions between people that are 'on task' and those that are not. 'Success' is defined in terms of the production of 'solutions' that (appear to) meet the specification on time. In polychronic cultures, tasks are routinely tackled in a complex, parallel fashion without hard-and-fast deadlines. Social and instrumental interactions are interwoven and informal, often emerging organically and opportunistically. 'Success' is defined in terms of the production of 'solutions' that fulfil the initial intentions, even if not the technical specification, and which also serve to enhance social harmony and cohesion.\n<<<\n(Hall argues Northern European, North American & 'male' societies tend to be monochronic, whereas Mediterranean, 'Southern hemisphere' and 'female' societies tend to be more polychronic)\n\n''p.31'' - School teachers tend to be more polychronic whilst administrators tend to be more monochronic:\n<<<\nSimply through the failure to recognize cultural differences, innovation may come to be subverted or collapse under a rising tide of frustration ('Why are they so slow and fuzzy?' grumble the change promoters) and resentment ('Why are they so pushy and insensitive?' complain the teachers)\n<<<\n(this sense of dissonance is also felt by many children as they move from the (more polychronic) primary school to the (more monochronic) secondary school)\n\n''p.32'' - Schools need to focus on the 'how' rather than the 'what' when considering change:\n<<<\nChildren acquire positive learning dispositions... by being 'apprenticed' to a community within which such dispositions are naturally manifested, modelled, recognized, acknowledged, and valued by the 'elders' by whom they are surrounded. The tools and attitudes of learning have to be nurtured within an educational milieu that affords, supports and encourages their expression and their development. This involves not the design of new programmes of study, nor even, in the main, the adoption of new forms of pedagogy, but an attention to the implicit values and assumptions of the culture, and to making sure that its objects, its tasks, its non-verbal signals and so on are consonant with the dispositions that the culture wishes to develop. It is the beliefs and priorities that are dissolved in the micro-'how' of the school that matter; not the glitzy new packages of 'what'.\n<<<

''A. Davis & K. Williams, 'Epistemology and Curriculum' (in N. Blake, et al. (eds.), //The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Education//, Oxford, 2003)''\n\n''p.268'' - Cannot guarantee minimum standards through a curriculum:\n<<<\nIt is one thing then to prescribe a curriculum based on a rich conception of knowledge; it is another to ensure the richness of this learning. We cannot guarantee a minimum education, let alone a rich quality of engagement with curricular pursuits or practices. We can prescribe a right or entitlement to receive schooling and do our utmost to ensure that young people profit from it but it is impossible to ensure the success of our efforts. Analogously, perhaps, we can prescribe a minimum wage but we cannot guarantee a minimum quality of life; we can prescribe minumu standards of health care but we cannot guarantee health. Educational expectations must not therefore be extreme and unrealistic.\n<<<\n(this also means that any given assessment "can never assess in an exhaustive way a learner's achievement")

''P. Hogan & R. Smith, 'The Activity of Philosophy and the Practice of Education' (in N. Blake, et al. (eds.), The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Education, Oxford, 2003)''\n\n''p.166'' - Education - "part of the machinery of some higher office, or dominant outlook, whether authoritarian or democratic, religious or secular, or other in character". Cannot tackle these assumptions through logical argument. \n\n''p.167'' - Problem of thinking about education rather than simply getting on an doing it:\n<<<\nIn short, to //theorize// about human experience is to render it lucid at the cost of wresting it from its embeddedness in social and historical circumstance. It is to obscure the particularity, the contextuality, the embodiment in language and idiom, that is essential to experience itself. The gain in understanding is secured at the cost of recasting experience as something else, of losing what is particular to experience //qua// experience, as distinct from experience as the object of theoretical explanation.\n<<<\n

''R. Carneiro, 'The New Frontiers of Education' (in UNESCO, //Learning Throughout Life: challenges for the twenty-first century//, Paris, 2002)''\n\n''p.64'' - Tensions in education:\n#The interplay between tradition and modernity\n#The trade-offs involved in public policy-making\n#Strains between the long and the short term\n#The search for increased equity in a world dominated by fierce competition\n#The need to reconcile global (universal) approaches with local (individual) needs\n#An ever-growing expansion of knowledge with limited human capacity to assimilate it\n#The delicate interplay between the spiritual and the material\n\n''p.66'' - Knowledge is always changing:\n<<<\nNew knowledge is undergoing constant metamorphosis. The most important change concerns the transition from objective knowledge (codified and scientifically organized) to subjective knowledge (a personal construct, intensely social in its processes of production, dissemination and application).\n<<<\n\n''p.66-7'' - Education will need to adapt to changes in knowledge:\n<<<\nEducation and training strategies will need to adapt to the new knowledge patterns contained in the immense variety of human mindsets, accepting that knowledge is very much a personal construct implicitly recognizing a variety of roads leading to its timely appropriation. The major impacts on education and training in knowledge-based societies are moves from objective to constructive knowledge, an industrial to a learning society, instruction to personal learning, communication to knowledge acquisition and schooling to non-formal modes of learning.\n<<<\n\n''p.67'' - Four ways of knowing:\n\n[img[Four ways of knowing diagram|http://teaching.mrbelshaw.co.uk/wiki/images/carneiro_types_of_knowledge.gif]]\n<<<\nKnowing 'what' and 'why' corresponds to traditional visions surrounding teaching: objective knowledge constructed and rotely transmitted around the notions of causal effects. Knowing 'who' and 'how' pays justice to the softer aspects of knowledge production, which appear to be highly contingent on social and cultural environments.\n<<<

''Stephen Downes - How to be a Good Learner''\n\n<<<\n''Interaction: How to Get It''\nYou cannot depend on traditional learning for interactivity…\nMost learning based on the broadcast model\nMost interactivity separated from learning\n<<<\n\n<<<\n''Principles of Relevance''\nInformation is a flow, not a collection of objects\nDon’t worry about remembering, worry about repeated exposure to good information\nRelevance is defined by function, not topic or category \nInformation is relevant only if it is available where it is needed \n<<<\n\n

''J. Delors, //Education: the necessary Utopia//, in J. Delors (ed.), //Learning:The Treasure Within// (UNESCO, France, 1996)''\n\n''p.25'' - World Conference on Education for All (1990) - World Declaration on Education for All, Art.1, para.1 - basic learning needs:\n<<<\nThese needs comprise both essential learning tools (such as literacy, oral expression, numeracy, and problem solving) and the basic learning content (such as knowledge, skills, values and attitudes) required by human beings to be able to survive, to develop their full capacities, to live and work in dignity, to participate fully in development, to improve the quality of their lives, to make informed decisions, and to continue learning.\n<<<\n\n''p.25'' - No need for an overloading of curricula to achieve all the skills and learning tools that young people require. Out-of-school approaches are also important, as are the effective use of modern media and social relationships:\n<<<\nTo put it another way, education is also a social experience through which children learn about themselves, develop interpersonal skills and acquire basic knowledge and skills. This experience should being in early childhood, in different forms depending on the situation, but always with the involvement of families and local communities.\n<<<\n\n''p.29'' - Need for local community participation in educational institutions as this develops responsibility and improves quality of life. One way to do this is through decentralization as this increases their scope for innovation. (N.B. This can be seen through the current DIY personalization agenda)\n\n''p.31'' - Teachers should work in teams, especially in secondary schools as this will lead to flexibility in the courses on offer. In turn, this should brring out some of the pupils' natural talents and help to lessen some sense of 'failure'.\n\n''p.31'' - Market forces and the marketization of education does not lead to the best educational experiences for all:\n<<<\nThe improvement of education... requires policymakers to face up squarely to their responsibilities. They cannot leave it to market forces or to some kind of self-regulation to put things right when they go wrong.\n<<<

''J. Delors, //The Four Pillars of Education//, in J. Delors (ed.), //Learning:The Treasure Within// (UNESCO, France, 1996)''\n\n''p.85'' - Fundamental tension for education in the 21st century:\n<<<\nEducation must transmit, efficiently and on a massive scale, an increasing amount of constantly evolving knowledge and know-how adapted to a knowledge-driven civilization, because this forms the basis of the skills of the future. At the same time, it must find and mark the reference points that will make it possible, on the one hand, for people not to be overwhelmed by the flows of information, much of it ephemeral, that are invading the public and private domains and, on the other, to keep the development of individuals and communities as its end in view. Education must, as it were, simultaneously provide maps of a complex world in constant turmoil and the compass that will enable people to find their way in it.\n<<<\n\n-> This means that traditional, quantitative, knowledge-based responses to the demand for education are no longer appropriate:\n<<<\nEach individual must be equipped to seize learning opportunities throughout life, both to broaden her or his knowledge, skills or attitudes, and to adapt to a changing, complex and interdependent world.\n<<<\n\n\n''p.86'' - Education needs to be organized around four fundamental types of learning:\n*''//Learning to know//'' ("acquiring the instruments of understanding")\n*''//Learning to do//'' ("so as to be able to act creatively on one's environment")\n*''//Learning to live together//'' ("so as to participate and co-operate with other people in all human activities")\n*''//Learning to be//'' ("an essential progression which proceeds from the previous three")\n\n-> Traditional education has focused on //learning to know// and - to a lesser extent - on //learning to do//. The other two are left to change or assumed to be the natural product of the first two. \n\n\n''p.87'' - Education in the 21st century should not be merely about specialization:\n<<<\nAs knowledge is manifold and constantly changing, however, it is increasingly futile to try to know everything - after basic education, omnidisciplinarity is an illusion - but specialization, even for future researchers, must not exclude general knowledge... A general education bring a person into contact with other languages and areas of knowledge, and in the first instance makes communication possible... In addition, general education bonds societies together in time and space, and fosters receptiveness to other areas of knowledge, enabling fruitful synergies to develop between disciplines.\n<<<\n\n\n''p.90'' - Advanced economies are becoming increasingly 'dematerialized' in that services within these economies are best defined by what they are not - i.e. "neither industrial nor agricultural and, despite their variety, have in common the fact that they do not produce material goods."\n\n-> Many services defined mainly by the interpersonal relationships they involve. Almost impossible to train for this as you can for a factory job:\n<<<\nThe development of services therefore makes it essential to cultivate human qualities that are not ncessarily inculcated by traditional training and which amount to the ability to establish stable, effective relationships between individuals.\n<<<\n\n''p.94'' - //Learning to Be//, a report by UNESCO in 1972 expressed the fear that the world would be dehumanized as a result of technical change. Edgar Faure, et al:\n<<<\n...the risk of personality-alienation involved in the more obsessive forms of propaganda and publicity, and in the behavioural conformity which may be imposed on him from the outside, to the detriment of his genuine needs and his intellectual and emotional identity. Meanwhile machines... are ousting him from a certain number of areas in which he used to feel able, at least, to move freely and pursue his ends after his own fashion.\n<<<\n\n-> even more of a concern in the 21st century:\n<<<\nIn the twenty-first century, these phenomena may loom even larger. The problem will then on longer be so much to prepare children for a given society as to continuously provide everyone with the powers and intellectual reference points they need for understanding the world around them and behaving responsibly and fairly. More than ever, education's essential role seems to be to give people the freedom of thought, judgement, feeling and imagination they need in order to develop their talents and remain as much as possible in control of their lives.\n<<<\n\n''p.95'' - Risk of standardization in face of burgeoning nature of knowledge:\n<<<\nIn an ever-changing world in which social and economic innovation seems to be one of the main driving forces, a special place should doubtless be given to the qualities of imagination and creativity, the clearest manifestations of human freedom, which may be at risk from a certain standardization of individual behaviour. The twenty-first century needs this variety of talents and personalities; it also needs the exceptional individuals who are also essential in any civilization.\n<<<\n\n''p.95'' - Education is development of the self:\n<<<\nIndividual development, which begins at birth and continues throughout life, is a dialectical process which starts with knowing oneself and then opens out to relationships with others. In that sense, education is above all an inner journey whose stages correspond to those of the continuous maturing of the personality. Education as a means to the end of a successful working life is thus a very individualized process and at the same time a process of constructing social interaction.\n<<<\n

''J. Delors, //Teachers in search of new perspectives//, in J. Delors (ed.), //Learning:The Treasure Within// (UNESCO, France, 1996)''\n\n''p.142'' - School has to compete for attention with the media, which focuses on instant gratification:\n<<<\nThe entertainment, news and advertising put out by the media convey messages that compete with or contradict what children learn at school. The organization of all those messages in brief sequences by the media has in many parts of the world detrimentally affected pupils' attention spans and, consequently, relationships within the classroom. When pupils spend less time in school than in front of a television set, the effortless and instant gratification offered by the media contrast starkly, in their minds, with what is required to succeed at school.\n<<<\n\n''p.143'' - Many problems and tensions in 21st century education come from the world outside:\n<<<\nFurthermore, the problems of the social environment can no longer be left behind at the school gates: poverty, hunger, violence and drugs enter classrooms with the children, whereas in the not so distant past they were kept outside with the unschooled. Teachers are expected not only to cope with those problems and to help develop understanding of a whole range of social optics, from promoting tolerance to birth control, but also to succeed where parents and the religious and secular authorities tend to fail. Moreover, they must find appropriate balances between tradition and modernity, and between the ideas and attitudes the child brings to school and the content of the curriculum. Thus, as the separation between the classroom and the outside world becomes less rigid, teachers also need to make efforts to take the learning process outside the classroom: physically, by practical learning experiences at sites outside schools, and from the content point of view by linking subject-matter to daily life.\n<<<\n-> Carr argues that this is implausible, as it is fallacious to think that instead of introducing children into physics, chemistry, biology and psychology it is possible to "introduce them to one of these subjects construed as a token of the general type of scientific inquiry." (-I disagree with Carr, as I believe that there are many skills which are cross-curricular. After all, subjects are human constructs!-)\n\n''p.145'' - Role of the teacher is more than just disseminating knowledge:\n<<<\nThe teacher's work is not confined simply to transmitting information or even knowledge; it also entails presenting that knowledge in the form of a statement of problems within a certain context and putting the problems into perspective, so that the learner can link their solution to broader issues. The teacher-pupil relationship aims at the full development of the pupil's personality, with emphasis on self-reliance; from this point of view the authority vested in teachers is always paradoxical, since it is not based on the assertion of their power but on the free recognition of the legitimacy of knowledge.\n<<<

''J. Delors, //Choices for education: the political factor//, in J. Delors (ed.), //Learning:The Treasure Within// (UNESCO, France, 1996)''\n\n''p.157'' - The marketization of education has its place in education, but should not be allowed into some spheres:\n<<<\nWhile it is proper to speak of a market for vocational education inasmuch as some of its services may be evaluated in cost-benefit terms, this is clearly not the case with all educational activities, some of which lie outside the economic order - those, for example, which relate to participation in the life of the community or self-fulfilment.\n<<<\n\n''p.158'' - Educational reforms are viewed with considerable scepticism as:\n<<<\nAlmost everything has been tried, yet the results rarely llive up to expectations. In many countries, repeated and contradictory attempts at reform have seemingly only intensified their education systems' resistance to change.\n<<<\n\n''p.160'' - The decentralization of education is not in and of itself a good thing:\n<<<\nDecentralization measures can form part of a democratic process or, equally well, of authoritarian processes leading to social exclusion... The weakening of the state's role with decentralization may then prevent the introduction of corrective measures.\n<<<\n\n''p.160'' - Education is too important to be left to market forces:\n<<<\nEducation is a collective asset that cannto be left only to market forces. Thus, whatever the organization or degree of decentralization or diversification of a system, the state must assume certain responsibilities to its citizens, including creating a national consensus on education, ensuring that the system forms a coherent whole and proposing a long-term view for the future.\n<<<\n\n-> ''p.160-1'' - Consensus formed, not accidental:\n<<<\nExperience shows that a consensus in society is essential to any reform process, but that it rarely occurs spontaneously. This means that it must be given institutional form and allowed to express itself through democratic procedures.\n<<<\n\n''p.172'' - New technologies are changing and re-shaping the world. Access to these is very important:\n<<<\n...there is a decisive issue at stake here, and it is important that schools and universities should have a central place in a profound change that is affecting the whole of society. There is no doubt but that individuals' ability to access and process information is set to become the determining factor in their integration not only into the working environment but also into their social and cultural environment.\n<<<\n\n''p.173'' - New technologies can ensure better dissemination of knowledge and increase equality of opportunity:\n<<<\n...as tools for the education of children and adolescents, the new technologies offer an unprecedented opportunity to satisfy an increasingly widespread and diversified demand, while maintaining quality. The possibilities they open up, along with their advantages for teaching, are vast.\n<<<\n\n''p.174'' - New technologies change the role of teachers:\n<<<\nA crucial point worth recalling... is that the development of the new technologies does not at all diminish the role of teachers - quite the contrary - but it does change it profoundly and it offer them an opportunity they must seize. True, in an information society teachers can no longer be regarded as the sole repositories of knowledge that they have only to pass on to the younger generation: they become as it were partners in a collective fund of knowledge that is up to them to organize, positioning themselves firmly in the vanguard of change. \n<<<\n\n''p.174'' - To even be able to acquire knowledge, learners have to learn how to navigate through information:\n<<<\nGiven the considerable quantity of information available on information networks, accurate navigation through knowledge becomes a precondition of knowing. This competency is becoming what some people consider to be a new form of literacy. This 'computeracy' is becoming more an dmore of a necessity for proper understanding of the real world of today. It is thus a pre-eminent means of acceding to independence, enabling individuals to play their part as free and enlightened members of society.\n<<<

[img[Henry VIII|http://www.newgenevacenter.org/portrait/henry-viii.jpg]]\n\n__Why was Henry VIII so fat?__\n//To compare and contrast the young Henry with the old.//\n\n\n__Why did Henry VIII chop his wives' heads off?__\n//To be able to name three reasons why Henry VIII grew dissatisfied with his wives.//

[img[Bayeux Tapestry|http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bayeuxtap1.jpg/300px-Bayeuxtap1.jpg]]\n\n__Would you invade 11th century England?__\n//To decide whether England was worth invading and for what reason(s).//\n\n__Who wanted to invade England in the 1060s?__\n//To be able to name at least two kings who wanted to invade England and why they wanted to do so.//

[img[Humanities GCSE|http://images.hoddersystems.com/getimage.asp?isbn=0340885831&issue=1&size=web]]\n\n__What was life like in Hitler's Germany?__\n//Learning Objective: To be able to explain how minorities were persecuted by Nazis.//\n\n''Resources:'' Video clip - 'Evacuating the Ghettos' from //Schindler's List//, Video clip - 'Death Camps', Keynote presentation for title & learning objective, partially-completed 5W's mindmap, photocopies from //Maus// (esp. p.230-231)\n*Starter = Splashr-like slideshow intro using pictures of Nazi Germany, diagrams of 1933-39 and Holocaust.\n*Q&A r.e. persecution & prejudice\n*Explain background, then show 'Evacuating the Ghettos' clip (give out photocopies from //Maus// near end)\n*Go through //Maus// photocopies and explain what happened to the Jews at Auschwitz\n*Show 'Death Camps' video clip\n*Q&A\n*Students write down what they have learned this lesson in bullet points.\n*Explain homework - (analysis of //[[The Eternal Jew|http://www.historyshareforum.com/index.php?topic=450.0]]// propaganda)

''Carr, D., //Making Sense of Education: an introduction to the philosophy and theory of education and teaching// (London, 2003)''\n\n''p.7'' - Saying that education is an initiation into a society's 'culture' is too slippery a notion:\n<<<\nAll the same, the claim that education is a matter of initiation into the values, habits, practices, customs and institutions of (human) culture does not yet get us very far. For a start, the term 'culture' is notoriously ambiguous. With respect to the 'sociological' sense of culture, which means the entire sum of customs and practices that characterise a given social constituency, it should be clear enough that education could not concern itself with all of these: aside from the fact that any such comprehensive initiation must be (logistically) beyond the scope of education, it is also clear that many human practices are morally or otherwise unsuitable for educational consumption. However, a narrower //evaluative// conception of culture as what is most humanly worthwhile - in the famous words of Matthew Arnold, 'the best that has been thought and said in the world' - confronts us with the central educational question of deciding //which// of the numerous forms of learning encountered in human culture(s) are to be considered crucial for the personal development of young people.\n<<<\n\n''p.8'' - The school curriculum has to try to be all things to all men:\n<<<\n...on even a superficial view, the standard school curriculum seems to contain forms of knowledge, understanding and skill of rather diverse human significance and value. First, many of the subjects and skills that have found their way into past and present schools would appear to have been included on grounds of simple //usefulness//. \n<<<\n\n''p.11-12'' - What does it mean to be 'educated'?\n<<<\nThe best we can so far say is that to be educated is to come to appreciate or value for their own sake the non-instrumental or teleological (intrinsically valuable) features of those forms of knowledge, understanding and skill for which a reasonable educational case has or can be made.\n<<<\n\n''p.12'' - education more //and// less than knowledge, skills and understanding:\n<<<\n...education is clearly both more and less than equipping young people with the knowledge, understanding and skills that may be useful... to them in adult life: it is //more// because young people people could come to master and exercise such skills without ever valuing for their own sake, and it is //less// because at least some of the subjects and activities that are acquired for their instrumental value have few or no non-instrumental person-constitutive features.\n<<<\n\n''p.14'' - ([[Ed.D. blog|http://elgg.net/dougbelshaw/weblog/142829.html]]) P.H. Hirst, 'Liberal education and the nature of knowledge', //Knowledge and the Curriculum//, 1974) argues that there is not such thing as knowledge and understanding for its own sake - "the acid test of fitness for inclusion of any subject or activity in the school curriculum should be social or economic utility: education should be seen as a //means// to an end, not as an end in itself.\n\n''p.15'' - The problem in the debate between instrumentalists and non-instrumentalists is a confusion between //education// and //schooling//:\n<<<\nSchooling is, of course, a social institution that is provided for out of public funds, and is to that extent accountable to the desires of taxpayers and their democratically elected political representatives. Among the many things that the average taxpaying parent will require from schools is that they equip their offspring with the sort of skills that will enable them to become responsible, productive and financially successful members of society. However, what will also be desired by many parents is that their offspring acquire the sort of educated understanding of themselves, the world and their relations with others that enables autonomous recognition and pursuit for their own sake of interests and projects of intrinsic satisfaction and value...\n<<<\n\n''p.16'' - Education is both more //and// less than schooling:\n<<<\nIn one sense, education is //more// than schooling: we can speak meaningfully of life-long education or learning, but not so sensibly of lifelong schooling...\n\nBut in another sense, education (even in schools) is rather //less// than schooling. It can only be //part// of the business of the institution of schooling to initiate young people into an appreciation of the flower of worthwhile human literary, artistic and other achievements //for its own sake//...\n<<<\n\n''p.18'' - Young people have an entitlement to a cultural inheritance:\n<<<\n...there is a cultural inheritance to which all young people are entitled - irrespective of differences of ability, social background and vocational destiny - and into which it is therefore the sacred duty of schools to acquaint each and every child. Thus, although there are going to be skills and activities (such as literacy and numeracy) that //all// need to acquire because no modern person can adequately function without them, as well as skills (of auto-repair and secretarial work) that some but not all individuals will require for particular vocations, the different vocational destinies of children should not be allowed to undermine their common entitlement to proper initiation into the 'best that has been thought and said'.\n<<<\n\n''p.25'' - Education is more than the memorization of facts:\n<<<\n...although one cannot doubt that there //are// historical facts (for example, that the Battle of Hastings occurred in 1066 or that Henry VIII had six wives), and //education// in history is just as obviously not a matter of mere memorising, but of //understanding// such facts. Moreover, in the case of historical understanding, we should appreciate that even hard facts are open to rival interpretation or explanation. But now, if historical education is a matter of understanding and interpretation, it is also a matter of //meaningful// learning - and it remains a persistent danger that such learning may be utterly sidelined by precisely the kind of analysis that reduces knowledge to such atomic elements as facts.\n<<<\n\n''p.133'' - The central philisophical issue of the school curriculum...\n<<<\n...is that of determining which potentially objective kinds or forms of knowledge and understanding (broadly construed to include social and personal capacities and practical skills, as well as academic knowledge) are appropriate for inclusion in any formal programme of school-baed education.\n<<<\n\n''p.134'' - Schooling and education are not one and the same:\n<<<\n...it is mistaken to regard the school curriculum as //exclusively// concerned with education in the purest (or purist) sense of promoting an understanding of the world for (as it is said) its own sake: thus, there are clearly many qualities human agents need for effective functioning and well-being that are worthy of curriculum space, despite having quite straightforward instrumental or extrinsic utility.\n<<<\n\n''p.134'' - School is about producing 'informed rational agents':\n<<<\n...we are more or less bound to admit that socially institutionalised schooling could hardly other than be concerned with the promotion of informed rational agents who also possess capacities for responsible interpersonal association, and the basic knowledge and skills required for a useful economic contribution to society, as well as for independent and healthy personal functioning.\n<<<\n\n''p.135'' - It is no great mystery why the subjects and activities in the school curriculum are there:\n<<<\n...those philosophical issues that have sometimes arisen concerning the legitimacy or otherwise of including this or that subject in the curriculum - about whether, for example, there is a proper place for hockey or Latin - would often seem to have been generated by the sort of procrustean curriculum theories which have held that subjects ought to be excluded if they are //either// not economically useful (instrumentalism) //or// not intrinsically worthwhile forms of knowledge (non-instrumentalism). However, it is not just aht there are //many// reasons for including activities in the curriculum, but that individual activities will often find a place for rather different reasons: there are, for example, many differen treasons for including physical education - even through it is //neither// (for most people) economically useful //nor// an intrinsically worthwhile form of knowledge (in any significant educational sense).\n<<<\n\n''p.135'' - Five common criteria of recent official and professional curriculum design and development:\n*balance\n*breadth\n*coherence\n*continuity\n*progression\n\n''p.136'' - Having a 'balanced' curriculum is seen as important, but what exactly is meant by the term?\n<<<\n...it should be... clear that any employment of the term 'balance'... is little more than an uncashed metaphor, and probably acquires what little sense it has from its slightly more perspicuous application in other professional contexts. Thus, for example, we can have some idea of what might constitute a balanced diet on the grounds that there are reasonable natural scientific criteria of physical health: without regular intake of a certain specifiable range of minerals, proteins, liquids, vitamins, and so on, a person's physical flourishing is liable to observable and fairly well measurable decline. The obvious difficulty for any more analogical curricular application, however, is that of determining what might count as plausible educational or personal developmental equivalents of vitamins and minerals - or, worse yet, the appropriate intakes or dosages of any such curricular ingredients.\n<<<\n(follows on)\n<<<\nHence, even if we distinguish as we have between schooling and education, and recognise that - insofar as education is simply one of the functions of schooling - any school curriculum has a responsibility to equip young people with knowledge, capacities, qualities, skills and dispositions that reach beyond the purely intellectual or the cognitive to the social, moral, emotional and practical, it is still far from entirely clear what one should include and what one could or should leave out.\n<<<\n(example of R.E.)\n\n''p.139'' - We shouldn't confuse //forms of knowledge// with //school subjects//:\n<<<\nTo some extent, the idea of constructing the school curriculum around forms of knowledge seems to have been precisely designed to address the potential problem of too many subjects in the curriculum. In this respect, of course, it is important not to confuse //forms of knowledge// with school //subjects//: thus, whereas geography is one subject, it would be regarded as involving different forms of knowledge (natural science, humanities, moral inquiry), and although physics, chemistry and biology are different subjects, they might be held to be but different modes or aspects of one (natural scientific) form of knowledge.\n<<<\n\n''p.140-141'' - It is impossible to initiate a person into //all// the forms of human knowledge:\n<<<\nBasically, curriculum conceptions of a forms of knowledge variety turn on a particular conception of education as a matter of a wide-ranging acquaintance with the greatest possible //extent// of rational human understanding. However, it is possible to question not just how far any such initiation can and should go, but also whether this conception of education is a very reasonable or practicable one. First, if one refused to regard as educated any person who had not been successfully initiated into all the human enterprises we might consider to be educationally worthwhile, surely hardly anyone would so count - since, to be sure, individual differences of talent and interest will preclude much if any success in some activities for most if not all of us.\n<<<\n(-Isn't Carr conflating initiation and 'success' here?-)\n\n''p.141'' - education is more concerned with broad brushstrokes rather than ensuring a //passion// for a particular area of learning:\n<<<\n...it has been explicitly argued that focus on curricular breadth has often wrongly emphasised coverage of content at the expense of the development on the part of young people of a real passion for, or commitment to, //some// worthwhile form of human engagement. More particularly, it has been urged - not least in relation to those less able pupils whose capacity to cope with the academic rigours of a forms of knowledge curriculum is often held to be limited - that it is better for children to leave school with 'one genuine enthusiasm' than with a superficial smattering or acquaintance with many subjects.\n<<<\n(e.g. M. Warnock, 'Towards a definition of quality in education' in R.S. Peters (ed.), //The Philosophy of Education//, Oxford, 1973)\n\n''p.141-142'' - 'Curriculum coherence' either means something very trivial or something very controversial:\n<<<\n...on the face of it, there cannot be much quarrel with any insistence that the content of the curriculum should be //coherent//: at all events, one could hardly wish it to be incoherent. The trouble here, however, seems to be that any call for curriculum coherence is either requiring something so general as to be trivial - in which case it may hardly seem worth emphasising - or it is claiming something very much more radical and //controversial//. First, indeed, it is necessary to determine precisely what any alleged relations of coherence are supposed to hold between - as well as, perhaps, exactly how such relations are supposed to hold. On the one hand, if coherence is required only between the parts of particular subjects or lessons, then - irrespective of any difficulties involved in achieving this - such coherence could hardly be other than an intrinsic goal of any and all good teaching... On the other hand, however, it could be that the demand for coherence is meant to apply rather more widely to the curriculum: to the programme in general, perhaps, rather than to this or that subject in particular... This more radical but controversial conception of curriculum coherence would maintain that if the general programme of study that children are required to undergo in schools is to be of any real educational worth, then it should be experienced more as a meaningfully interrelated whole than as a meaningless array of discrete or fragmented bodies of information or activity. In short, the more general demand for coherence may seem to be better met by a progressive or integrated than by a traditional or subject-centred curriculum.\n<<<\n\n''p.143'' - However, there are difficulties with coherence:\n<<<\n...it is still crucially important to appreciate the proper limits of integration: that, in short, it would be folly to attempt any wholesale integration of the school curriculum, since any curriculum will contain much that is not readily integrable. Hence, while there may be quite plausible cases for combining aspects of history with drama, cookery with geography, or even moral education with cricket, it is easy to see how the search for integration could become strained and artificial, resulting in some very much less meaningful constellations of learning.\n<<<

''Wisdom'' (according to [[Wordnet|http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=wisdom]])\n<<<\n*accumulated knowledge or erudition or enlightenment\n*the trait of utilizing knowledge and experience with common sense and insight\n*ability to apply knowledge or experience or understanding or common sense and insight\n*the quality of being prudent and sensible\n<<<\n\n''Wisdom'' (according to [[Wikipedia|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisdom]], 27/12/06)\n<<<\nWisdom is often meant as the ability and desire to make choices that can gain approval in a long-term examination by many people. In this sense, to label a choice "wise" implies that the action or inaction was strategically correct when judged by widely-held values.However true wisdom cannot be measured in terms of popular consensus. \n<<<\n\n''Wisdom'' (according to [[Dictionary.com|http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/wisdom]]\n<<<\nthe quality or state of being wise; knowledge of what is true or right coupled with just judgment as to action; sagacity, discernment, or insight.\n<<<\n\n''Wisdom'' (according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary|http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/wisdom?view=uk]]\n<<<\n''1'' the quality of being wise. \n''2'' the body of knowledge and experience that develops within a specified society or period.\n<<<\n\nAn ''educated person'' (according to [[Michigan State University|http://www.msu.edu/unit/provost/Educated_Person.htm]]):\n<<<\nAn educated person is someone who has learned how to acquire, analyze, synthesize, evaluate, understand, and communicate knowledge and information. An educated person has to develop skills that respond to changing professional requirements and new challenges in society and the world at large. He or she must be able to take skills previously gained from serious study of one set of problems and apply them to another. He or she must be able to locate, understand, interpret, evaluate, and use information in an appropriate way and ultimately communicate his or her synthesis and understanding of that information in a clear and accurate manner.\n<<<\n\nRoger Schank - being an ''educated person'' is more than about being able to recall facts:\n<<<\nFacts are not the currency of learning, nor does mastery of them indicate anything about an educated person. Facts play a big role in the education system because they are so easy to test. And, it is tests (usually highly irrelevant tests) that have helped shape your learning since you were six. Curiously, most important things that people know they cannot explicitly recall or state as facts. What is the right way to get the person of your dreams interested in you? How does one pursue a successful career? Was the United States wrong to believe in "Manifest Destiny"? Is the situation in Bosnia really all that similar to Nazi Germany, or is it more like Vietnam? An educated person might have answers for these questions. But they are not simple questions and there are no simple answers for them. Being educated means being able to understand the questions and knowing enough relevant history to be able to make reasoned arguments. Making reasoned arguments, not citing history, is the key issue here. Learning to think and express what one has thought in a persuasive way is the real stuff of education.\n<<<\n(//[[What to Know, How to Learn It|http://cogprints.org/638/00/What_to_Know_Brockman_book.html]]//, no date)\n\nTrevor Pateman - 3 characteristics of an ''educated person'':\n<<<\nI single out three characteristics central to my conception of an educated person, for on this occasion it is of persons that I am predicating educatedness. First, that such a person is open to, generally welcomes and searches for new experience and knowledge in and about the world in which they live. This requires that they have in some sense both learnt how to learn and also desire to learn. Secondly, that such a person has an individuality expressed in and through their own life plan (to borrow a concept of John Rawls), and this life plan contains reflective components in terms of which new experiences and claims to knowledge are evaluated. Thirdly, and this may in fact be derivable from my first two characteristics, that such a person be capable of participating in and capable of improvement by free and equal discussion. Here I borrow from John Stuart Mill's On Liberty, although `discussion' should be understood as widely as possible to include the voices of poetry and other arts in the conversation of humankind. This third criterion involves a recognition of the irreducibly social nature of human experience, knowledge and activity, a recognition usually associated with post-Wittgensteinian philosophy, but already present in Mill's Socratic theory of argumentation.\n<<<\n(//[[Can Schools Educate?|http://www.selectedworks.co.uk/schooleducation.html]]//, lecture given in 1980)

''T.L. Friedman, //The World is Flat: the globalized world in the twenty-first century// (London, 2005)''\n\n''p.302-7'' - Four skills sets and attitudes to prepare young people for the 'new middle':\n*Learning how to learn\n*Passion & curiosity (CQ+PQ>IQ)\n*Playing well with others\n*Nurturing the right-brain\n\n''p.307'' - Quotes Daniel Pink r.e. need to develop right-brain approaches so that you don't become redundant as a computer, robot or talented robot can't do what you do cheaper or better:\n<<<\nUntil recently, the abilities that led to success in school, work and business were characteristic of the left hemisphere. They were the sorts of linear, logical, analytical talents measured by SATs and deployed by CPAs. Today, those capabilities are still necessary. But they're no longer sufficient. In a world upended by outsourcing, deluged by data, and choked with choices, the abilities that matter most are now closer in spirit to the specialties of the right hemisphere - artistry, empathy, seeing the big picture, and pursuing the transcendent.\n<<<

''A. Martin, 'Towards e-literacy' (in A. Martin & H. Rader (eds.), //Information and IT literacy: enabling learning in the 21st century//, London, 2003)''\n\n''p.3'' - Information and IT literacy essential to be a successful learner in the 21st century:\n<<<\nOver the past few decades, the view of teaching and learning has changed dramatically. The emergence of student-focused learning models has led to re-examination of the activities of learning. At the same time, information technology (IT) has enabled new ways of setting up learning activities. In the IT-rich learning environment, students' achievement of IT (information technology) and information literacy becomes essential to their success as learners.\n<<<\n\n''p.3'' - Shift in last 3 decades in way which teaching and learning in higher education are perceived:\n* Up to 1960s - imparting of academic knowledge (lectures, tutorials & essays)\n* 1960s/70s - student-centred theories started to be adopted (c.f. Vygotsky, Piaget & Bruner - learning as an interactive process)\n* 1970s onwards - constructivist theories of learning\n\n''p.4'' - Scott, Dyson & Gater (1987) - summary of key elements of a constructivist view of learning in science:\n# Learning outcomes depend not only on the learning environment but also on the prior knowledge, attitudes and goals of the learner.\n# Learning involves the construction of knowledge through experience with the physical environment and through social interaction.\n# Constructing links with prior knowledge is an active process involving the generation, checking and restructuring of ideas or hypotheses.\n# Learning science is not simply a matter of adding to and extending existing concepts, but may involve their radical re-organization.\n# Meanings, once constructed, can be accepted or rejected.\n# Learning is not passive. Individuals are purposive beings who set their own goals and control their own learning.\n# Students frequently bring similar ideas, about natural phenomena, to the classroom. This is hardly surprising when one considers the extent of their shared experiences.\n\n''p.5'' - Perry (1970) - move from //dualistic// perspective (problems essentially right or wrong) to a //relativisitic// perspective (problems = complex, not necessarily a 'correct' solution)\n\n''p.5'' - Students are not empty vessels to be 'filled':\n<<<\nAs theories of learning have developed, so has the model of the learner, from a model of an empty pot to be filled with knowledge or a //tabula rasa// to be inscribed upon by the teacher.\n<<<\n\n''p.7'' - New types of students in the 21st century - Langlois (1997):\n<<<\nA new type of student, computer-literate, will expect that his university and its teaching staff are equally familiar and equipped with new technologies. As a service to their students, universities have to enhance Information Technologies as, in future years, it will be widely spread in all areas of the labour market. Information literacy will be essential for all future employees. Modern students are now looking for more flexible learning patterns and universities must commit themselves to creating new learning environments.\n<<<\n\n''p.7'' - Langlois (1997) - 6 ways in which teaching and learning will benefit from ICT:\n# Expansion and increased efficiency of the instructional process\n# Development of new teaching materials and distance learning modules\n# Increased cost-effectiveness\n# Changes in the role of the teacher to facilitator and guide (rather than provider of knowledge)\n# Changes in learning styles to more student-focused modes\n# Improvements in communication\n\n''p9'' - McFarlane report (COSUP, 1992) - holistic view of nature of the learning environment needs to be maintained, even with proliferation of IT tools:\n<<<\nStudents will have to be taught how to manage their own learning processes to an unprecedented degree. They will have to learn how to swim in a sea of information, to use the rich resources of a supportive learning environment, to self-pace and self-structure their programmes of learning. They will have to choose from a spectrum of learning styles ranging from virtual self instruction under support to group working of various types.\n<<<\n\n''p.11'' A key challenge = re-conceiving the role of the educator. IT does not mean the end of face-to-face encounters, but various methods have to be employed as geography becomes less important. Teachers should view IT facilities as 'enhancements rather than threats'.\n\n''p.12-17'' - 3 different phases in usage of computers & technology:\n* ''Mastery phase'' (up to mid-1980s) - emphasis placed on gaining skills and knowledge to be able to harness the power of the computer by understanding how it works and being able to program it.\n* ''Application phase'' (mid-1980s to late 1990s) - graphical user interface (e.g. Windows) taken for granted and the computer was perceived as an everyday tool that can be applied to a wide range of activities in education, work & leisure. Focus for computer literacy = how to use applications - practical competencies rather than specialist computing knowledge. Certification schemes arises and computers started to appear in schools.\n* ''Reflective phase'' (late 1990s onwards) - stimulated by need for students to become autonomous learners. IT facilities taken for granted and IT skills taken for granted as competencies that should learned when young. Move towards using best application for the task in hand and upon interpreting information generated. \n\n''p.12'' - Early definition of computer literacy (Nevison, 1976):\n<<<\nIt is reasonable to suggest that a peson who has written a computer program should be called //literate in computing//. This is an extremely elementary definition. Literacy is not fluency.\n<<<\n\n''p.14'' - In the 'Mastery' phase of computers in education, programming was seen as an important meta-skill, just as learning Latin was "once recommended as a stimulator of orderly thinking." (c.f. Papert's //Logo//)\n\n''p.16'' - In the 'Reflective' phase, being computer-literate means acquiring skills, not knowledge. US National Council Report (1999):\n<<<\nGenerally, 'computer literacy' has acquired a 'skills' connotation, implying competency with a few of today's computer applications, such as word processing and e-mail. Literacy is too modest a goal in the presence of rapid change, becuase it lacks the necessary 'staying power'. As the technology changes by leaps and bounds, existing skills become antiquated and there is no migration path to new skills. A better solution is for the individual to plan to adapt to changes in the technology.\n<<<

''J. Stephen Town, 'Information Literacy: definition, measurement, impact' (in A. Martin & H. Rader (eds.), //Information and IT literacy: enabling learning in the 21st century//, London, 2003)''\n\n''p.53'' - ICT literacy tends to just mean basic skills:\n<<<\nUnfortunately, a number of issues obstruct clarity in the field of information literacy, particularly in the UK. The term 'ICT literacy' is a particularly unfortunate elision. ICT (information and communications technology) literacy appears to imply inclusion of information literacy, but in fact is only a synonym for IT (or computer) literacy. Its use tends to obscure the fact that information literacy is a well developed concept separate from IT (information technology) literacy.\n<<<\n(goes on to say that this isn't the case in other English-speaking countries)\n\n''p.54'' - //Oxford English Dictionary// definition of 'wisdom' = precisely applicable to concept of information literacy:\n<<<\nPossession of expert knowledge together with the power of applying it practically.\n<<<\n

''P. Reffell, 'IT Skills are not enough' (in A. Martin & H. Rader (eds.), //Information and IT literacy: enabling learning in the 21st century//, London, 2003)'' \n\n''p.125-6'' - European Computer Driving License (ECDL) is not a good idea:\n<<<\nInitiatives like the ECDL reinforce the idea that the technology, and the techniques required to work the technology, are the central concern of the learning process, rather than developing both the information skills required to work within an information environment, and the technical understanding required to use the appropriate tools... In order to participate in any kind of social sphere, one must be able to make informed choices about the society within which one exists or with which one wishes to engage. In the case of the so-called information society and our need, perceived or otherwise, to participate in it, we need to know how to use IT in an appropriate way.\n<<<

''J. Muller, //Reclaiming Knowledge: social theory, curriculum and education policy// (London, 2000)''\n\n!Introduction\n\n''p.1-2'' - The traditional hierarchies of knowledge have produced a 'crisis'. Knowledge needs to be defined in a different manner - the author believes that it is through self-reflective understandings of distinctions between perspectives (and information?)\n<<<\nImportant branches of epistemology, philosophy of science and cognitive psychology have made schemes of classification their chosen domain for many decades. More recently, the classical disciplines of knowledge have run into a series of difficulties, which have produced a crisis for both knowledge and the disciplines studying it. The literatures naming these difficulties are technical and complex, but the problem, or paradox, can be simply if abstractly described. Systematicity is necessary for distinctions to become knowledge. This is because non-systematic 'knowledge' - practical knowledge and local wisdom of sorts - refers to the effects and uses of knowledge but does not provide the basis for reflection upon its bases, and therefore upon the possibility of alternative bases: 'the wise person observes himself, applies his wisdom to himself, and does not attempt to account for the perspectives of others or other possibilities of perspective' (Luhmann, 1998, p.37)\n<<<\n//(have found definition of Systematicity [[here|http://elgg.net/dougbelshaw/weblog/147542.html]])//\n\n''p.2'' - How knowledge is created through distinctions:\n<<<\nDistinctions become knowledge when they become self-referential, when they attempt to deal with inconsistencies; in other words, when the become reflexive. And when they become self-referential and reflexive then the distinctions and their connections become open to destabilization because they become repeatable, transcribable and therefore revisable by the competent community at large. ''Reflexivity is thus both the condition for knowledge and the means for its motility and destabilization.''\n<<<\n(my emphasis)\n(c.f. wikis? Author says in footnote that, "When it is said that knowledge is reflexive in this particular sense, it means that knowledge to be knowledge must operate in an institutionalized context, which in the case of science means, for example, peer review, publication and the like, where the method of gaining the results and the results themselves can be repeated or disputed with a community of scholars. It does not mean that individual scholars become more thoughtful.") \n\n''p.2'' - Knowledge is not something external to society: knowledge is intrinsically social:\n<<<\nIn the traditional sociology of knowledge, knowledge and society were considered to be external to one another, with society acting upon knowledge from outside, bringing interests or values or purposes to bear on it, acting upon knowledge as science might act upon nature, bending it to a superior will. With a better awareness of the reflexivity of knowledge, in both senses, this is harder to sustain. ''The //intrinsic// sociality of knowledge, the thoroughly social nature of schemes of classification, not just their vulnerability to outside influence, is what must now be accounted for.''\n<<<\n(my emphasis) \n\n\n!Chapter 1 - The First and Last Interpreters\n\n''p.9'' - Two forms of curricular knowledge:\n#Official or codified knowledge packed in the school syllabus and taught to children (Young, 1976 - 'curriculum as fact')\n#Passage of knowledge within the school system - process by which social knowledge becomes validated as school knowledge (Young, 1976 - 'curriculum as process')\n\n''p.10'' - Problem r.e. curriculum = those best placed to critique it are too busy putting it into practice!\n<<<\nPart of the problem is that the people best placed to comment on the curriculum - teachers and curriculum planners among them - are locked into urgent practical tasks with very little time left for sober reflection and analysis.\n<<<\n\n''p.10 fn.2'' - Bourdieu (1990, p.143) - 'zones of cultural production' are structurally homogenous - tensions r.e. legitimate practice. Mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion exist:\n<<<\nOne of the major issues at stake in the struggles that occur in the literary or artistic field is the definition of the limits of the field, that is, of legitimate participation in the struggles. Saying of this or that tendency in writing that 'it just isn't poetry' or 'literature' means refusing it a legitimate existence, excluding it from the game, excommunicating it. This symbolic exclusion is merely the reverse of the effort to impose a definition of legitimate practice.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' this is what schools do with forms of knowledge which are important to kids but not on the curriculum, isn't it?)\n\n''p.11'' - Hoggart (1957) - the 'everyday canons' of the British working class = primarily oral, whereas those of the middle class are largely written. (''My thought:'' schools go for the middle-class 'reality' to the exclusion of the working-class. This is the case even in schools in primarily working-class areas)\n\n''p.11-12'' - The curriculum is the result of a struggle between social actors through 'restless processes of condensation and displacement'. Rorty (1989) says that 'Redescription often humiliates' meaning that changes result in power shifts to the detriment of the previously powerful social actors. \n\n''p.12-13'' - In principle, each person is an interpreter, providing an 'eyewitness' account of lived experience. These then coagulate into shared understandings and then merge with authorization. However, \n<<<\nin the everyday world of modern society, everyday meanings are seldom total or hegemonic. Many of them are guided by serendipity where they are not simply driven by habit...\n\nIn summary, the process of establishing knowledge for practice (or guidelines for action) in the everyday world is, by and large, an informal and ever-shifting interpretive process, punctuated by formal moments of high tradition and ritual.\n<<<\n\n''p.15'' - Curriculum and knowledge shaped by middle-class and 'professionals'. Example of mathematics text books: authors more interested in theoretical concerns than providing practical knowledge relevant to everyday concerns.\n\n''p.17'' - Teachers are only usually involved in the drawing up of the syllabus and textbooks as subject experts, not as teachers or representatives of the teaching profession:\n<<<\nThe handing over of the finished products - syllabuses and textbooks - the teachers for implementation is based on a view of knowledge tha underlies all dominant forms of canonization. ''Syllabus plus textbook equals curriculum.'' The curriculum is presumed to be transparent: teachers (and in some instances pupils) should only have to read it for all to be clear.\n<<<\n(my emphasis)\n(translating the knowledge into practice is supposed to be automatic)\n(this model puts teachers second-from-bottom in a strict hierarchy)\n\n''p.18'' - The 'objectification of knowledge as curriculum' = fundamental to the commodification of knowledge. This lends itself to easier marketization - drift towards 'packaged curricula' results.\n\n''p.18'' - Giroux (1988) - 'hidden curriculum' =\n<<<\nthe unstated norms, values and beliefs that are transmitted to students through the underlying structure of meaning.\n<<<\n\n''p,18'' - The traditional classroom is regulated by the teacher, so descriptions or redescriptions go through them:\n<<<\nTeacher monologue closes out the possibility of alternative meanings, while questions tend to open up meaning in different directions, depending on the type of questions asked. The conferral of authority by the teacher on rhetorical questions or student answers to teacher questions predisposes particular interpretations.\n<<<\n\n''p.19'' - Mechanisms to bring teachers into line to make sure they don't subvert the status quo:\n#Examination procedures - teacher and school are judged according to the performance of the students in exams.\n#School inspections - ensures maintenance of norms and canons.\n#Teacher promotions - based on success rates in exams, etc.\n\n\n!Chapter 2 - Globalization, Innovation and Knowledge\n\n''p.25'' - Dahlman & Nelson (1993) - technology is not a 'thing':\n<<<\nWe should not think of technology as a 'thing', say the economists, as either hardware or software, but rather as 'the use of knowledge, means, processes, and organisations to produce goods and services.'\n<<<\n\n''p.26'' - Dahlman & Nelson (1993) - technology = a driving force in our society (quotation from them):\n<<<\nTechnology and technical change are one of the main driving forces behind the structure of production, the opportunities for trade, the increase in international competitiveness, and the growth of national income.\n<<<\nThis means, says Muller:\n<<<\nThe condition of 'knowledgeable deployment' [of technology] is education. Perhaps more tightly even than in the heyday of Bekker's 'human capital' hypotheses of the 1960s..., education (or knowledge) is, in the contemporary economic narrative, tied more tightly than ever into technology, productivity and development; one may add - to unplanned risk and uncertainty as well.\n<<<\n\n''p.27'' - Education = essential for globalization:\n<<<\nGlobalization, or 'glocalisation' (Bauman, 1998), is simultaneously about the global and the local. Not being at the exclusive mercy of either is a definition of survival in these risky times. And education is somehow at the centre of most scenarios of survival.\n<<<\n\n''p.30'' - Polanyi (1958) on forms on knowledge:\n<<<\nAlthough the expert diagnostician, taxonomist and cotton-classer can indicate their clues and formulate their maxims, they know many more things than they can tell, knowing them only in practice, as instrumental particulars, and not explicitly, as objects. The knowledge of such particulars is therefore ineffable, and a pondering of a judgement in terms of such particulars is an ineffable process of thought. This applies equally to connoisseurship as the art of knowing and to skills as the art of doing, wherefore both can be taught only be aid of practiced example and never solely by precept.\n<<<\n(i.e people learn by doing, not just from being taught in an abstract way - and there is some knowledge that it is difficult (or impossible) to express in words - c.f. Wittgenstein?)\n\n''p.32'' - Reason why we can't teach old dogs new tricks - Streek (quoted by Elam, 1993):\n<<<\nThe reason why one cannot teach an old dog new tricks is not that the dog is old, but htat he wants to remain the kind of dog he has grown to be.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' could be applied to education system and some teachers)\n\n''p.33'' - Castells (1997):\n<<<\nI think therefore I produce.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' this is like new version of Bloom's Taxonomy with 'creation' at the top of the hierarchy of skills)\n\n\n!Chapter 3 - What Knowledge is of Most Worth for the Millenial Citizen?\n\n''p.43'' - Social organization of knowledge and learning is changing:\n<<<\nThe globalization literature may differ on many points, but it is unequivocal in this respect: ''we are entering a new form of society in which the social organization of knowledge and the social organization of learning are dramatically changing.''\n<<<\n(my emphasis)\n\n''p.43'' - Being successful in modern society means depending both on 'proliferating expert systems' and 'deepening reflexivity at both the individual and institutional level' - citizens increasingly 'monitor, question, demand justification', etc. This is the ''knowledge society''.\n\n''p.43 fn.2'' - Definition of the 'knowledge society' by Stehr (1994):\n<<<\nI conceive of a knowledge society as a society in which science and technology have extensively heightened the capacities of society to act upon itself, its institutions and its relations to the natural environment.\n<<<\n\n''p.44'' - Pace of knowledge production and obsolescence = unprecendented:\n<<<\nTo say that knowledge becomes more salient in modern society is not to deny that knowledge and its possession has always conferred power in every kind of society known to us. But in no other society has the sheer volume and, even more importantly, the //pace// of its production and obsolescence been so dramatic. So it is not merely a question of access to knowledge that becomes important to all citizens in late modern society, but access to and command of the //marginal additions// to knowledge that becomes key.\n<<<\n\n''p.44'' - Because of the number of institutions that traditionally employ knowledge workers, in the future those institutions that contribute to knowledge production via research-based activities will include NGOs, R&D units, research institutes, etc. Up until now, such activities have been the preserve of the universities.\n\n''p.44'' - Difference between ''mode 1'' research and ''mode 2'' research:\n*''Mode 1'' = disciplinary research (within universities, subjects, etc.)\n*''Mode 2'' = 'new' form where research:\n**arises in a //context of application//\n**is //transdisciplinary//\n**is //transinstitutional//\n**is often //financed from more than one source//\n**is less hierarchical and much more //collaborative//\n**has a new field: //evaluation// (as different quality criteria evolve)\n\n''p.45'' - Muller says that the mode 2 thesis is 'something of a fairy story' because:\n<<<\nIt over homogenizes the evolution of a phenomenon that probably happened much earlier and it overdichotomizes it, presenting it as two discrete ideal types that probably never exist in their pure form in the real world. Nevertheless, I will claim that the distinction provides a few useful levers for educators grappling for changes in knowledge, in learning and in curriculum policy and planning, its overgeneralizations notwithstanding.\n<<<\n\n''p.46'' - Advantages of the mode 1 vs. mode 2 distinction:\n*shows that simple opposition to the 'marketization' of education is misguided (needs context r.e. global economy)\n*suggests an implicit relationship between two regimes of knowledge production that will have important implications for curricular formats\n\n''p.46'' - The //replacement thesis// says that one era will replace the other - that we will jettison mode 1 ways in favour of mode 2. The //adjunct// or //supplementary// thesis (supported by Muller) says that mode 2 has actually been with us for a long time in some forms, but that recently it has become much more visible. Also, mode 1 could not disappear as mode 2 competence depends up on it.\n\n''p.51'' - Mode 2 skills should be learned through //problem-based//, as opposed to //discipline-based// learning.\n\n''p.52'' - There is an assumption by those who promote problem-based learning and the skills agenda that this can lead to higher-order thinking skills. However, Darling-Hammond (1997):\n<<<\nActive learning aimed at genuine understanding begins with disciplines, not with whimsical activities detached from core subjet matter concepts...\n<<<\n\n!Chapter 4 - Schooling and Everyday Life\n\n''p.56'' - Central debate in cultural studies and the sociology of knowledge = that between //insulation// and //hybridity//\n*''Insulation'' - stresses impermeable quality of cultural boundaries and of disciplinary autonomy (highlights differences between systems of knowledge)\n*''Hybridity'' - stresses the essential identity and continuity of forms and kids of knowledge (promiscuity over domains)\n<<<\nIn the cultural debates of the last 20 years or so, insulation has come to equal insularity and to be associated with conservatism and reaction, while hybridity, which as come to equal liberation, is associated with opposition to cultural imperialism and to the stultifying effects of tradition.\n<<<\n\n''p.57'' - Sleeter & Grant (1991) - the focus of the hybrid project is in,\n<<<\n...bridging school knowledge or public knowledge and the students' own cultural knowledge, and thus encourag(ing) students to analyse this interaction, and then use the knowledge learned to take charge of their lives.\n<<<\n\n''p.61'' - Boudieau (1993) - notion of //habitus//. Following by Muller:\n<<<\nSocial reality exists in minds at the same time as it exists in things. The objective notion of a field is thus always complemented by the notion of //habitus//, which denotes the subjective system of dispositions, the practical sense of the game, the bodily schemata of perception and action that agents inhabit 'naturally' and that steers their strategic action. Each objectively structured //position// in the social field thus has its subjectively structured set of //dispositions// ontologically paired with it. Habitus is what gives social reality regularity and predictability because agents become habituated to their positional lot and act dispositionally in habitual ways, or 'naturally', from it.\n<<<\n\n''p.63'' - Berstein (1990) - knowledge passes through the educational system via a series of //recontextualizations//. A discourse (e.g. chemistry) is delocated from its context and relocated into a new discourse (e.g. Year 7 Science). This transforms the practice completely, and the recontextualization is a result of and will therefore, considerable symbolic power.\n\n''p.63-4'' - Callon (1995) - 4 models of the knowledge production process:\n*''Model 1'' - traditional //rational// model of scientists and philosophers (explains knowledge growth in terms of accretion of robust explanatory statements)\n*''Model 2'' - a //competition// model which uses an economic metaphor: knowledge is always the outcome of competition for scarce resources (Bourdieu's approach)\n*''Model 3'' - knowledge as the result of //sociocultural practice// (i.e. constructivist)\n*''Model 4'' - //extended translation// - any knowledge statement = the contingent end point of an extended chain or network of inscriptions.\n<<<\nThe great advance that model four has over models two and three is... that the social context is analysed by its effect on the body of knowledge itself: the explanation for translational proliferation is sought not in the context but //in the inscriptions themselves//.\n<<<\n(quotation by Muller)\n\n\n!Chapter 5 - Intimations of Boundlessness\n\n''p.81'' - Durkheim: difference between the sacred and the profane (binaries)\n|!''Sacred''|!''Profane''|\n|Future-oriented|Tradition-oriented|\n|Collective|Individual|\n|Ideal|Sensory|\n|Speculative|Practical|\n\n''p.82'' - How constructivism deals with sacred/profane distinction:\n<<<\nConstructivism deals with the 'great divide', the asymmetry of discourses, by collapsing the distinction between the sacred and the profane. Specialized knowledge ensembles are to be treated as, in principle, the same as everyday knowledge ensembles and are to be discussed in terms of their continuity with the latter.\n<<<\n\n\n!Chapter 6 - The Well-tempered Learner\n\n''p.101'' - 'Constructivist psychology' - learners are projected as being 'active, creative individuals' and teachers are projected as 'self-governing professionals' whose professional competence is judged by the internalization and fusing of social professional and personal goals. The boundaries between a teacher's thoughts and feelings and professional practices in the classroom are therefore blurred. This is a more pervasive form of regulation than just regulating the //professional// actions of teachers - 'good' teachers have to feel personally involved and fulfilled to be professionally competent. (critique by Popkewitz, 1994, 1995)\n\n''p.102'' - Constructivist epistemology part of a wider whole:\n<<<\nIt strikes me here, though, that constructivist epistemology is but one part of a broader disciplinary constellation that looks not only at the formative dimensions of the form of knowledge but also principally at the form of acquisition or pedagogy that embraces it.\n<<<\n\n''p.102'' - Bernstein (1996) - there was a 'remarkable convergence' in the 1960s around the concept of competence:\n*Linguistic competence (Chomsky)\n*Cognitive competence (Piaget)\n*Cultural competence (Levi-Strauss)\n*Member competence (Garfinkle)\n*Communicative competence (Dell Hymes)\nAll agreed that 'competence refers to a capacity tacitly possessed by all members, capable of generating creative variety'.\n\n''p.103'' - Competence models 'stress regulative discourse' - the authority relations of transmission and acquisition are of particular concern. Democracy of relations is favoured: there are no rules to be followed. Personalization of learning is made important:\n<<<\nClassrooms relations are personalized, not position dependent. The ideal, personal, individual communication between the learner and the pedagogue is complex and multilayered, so that the learners are able to externalize their feelings, fantasies, fears and aspirations the better to actualize their competence.\n<<<\nPopkewitz (1995) - this puts far more of the learner's private world on display.\n\n''p.104'' - Pedagogic models:\n| |!Competence //(acquisition competence)//|!Performance //(transmission performance)//|\n|''Learner''|Control over selection, sequence and pace of learning|Little control over selection, sequence and pace of learning|\n|''Teacher''|Personal control, Transmission no pedagogically regulated, Rules implicit|Positional control, Pedagogically regulated|\n|''Pedagogic Text''|Ungraded and unstratified performance, Competence read through the performance|Graded and stratified performance, The performance itself|\n|''Learning sites''|Anywhere|Clearly marked learning sites|\n|''Class sponsors''|Professional and educational middle class|The new information or knowledge middle class|\n|''Costs''|Higher teacher-training costs, Hidden time-based costs, Less efficient with large classes|Lower teacher-training costs, Economies of external control, Can deal with large numbers|\n\n''p.105'' - The whole nature of the teaching profession would have to change in order to make education more competence-based:\n<<<\nCompetence pedagogies, especially of the radical or populist variety, are driven by an egalitarian project and are not geared to specialized futures. Performance pedagogies, on the other hand, are. These latter models move the focus from the learner to the learning course adn to the learning outcome. The learner here may still be active, but their activity is more goal directed rather than driven from within. The emphasis, in other words, is here more up on the instructional than upon the moral order; more upon the order of objects in the discourse acquired than upon the authority and autonomy relations of the process of transmission and acquisition.\n<<<\n\n\n!Chapter 7 - Critics and Reconstructors\n\n(not relevant)\n\n\n!Chapter 8 - Beyond Unkept Promises\n\n(not relevant)\n\n\n!Chapter 9 - Reason, Reality and Public Trust\n\n''p.151'' - Definition of positivism:\n<<<\nFor positivism, the scientific gaze must be separate from the world that it observes in order to create an objective true representation of reality. Truth then is the degree of correspondence between the representation and the reality. The degree of of correspondence is measured by evidence, by which certainty about the correspondence is generated. This operation depends in turn upon a certain self-reflexivity, a certain 'self-transparency', enabling the scientist to interrogate the representation methodically.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' this is the dominant paradigm in schools, apart from in the Humanities!)\n\n(follows on - new paragraph)\n<<<\nThis view of knowledge and truth depends pre-eminently upon the idea of the //disengaged observer// as well as upon a notion of truth as representation. The most profound critiques of this view therefore all attempt to demonstrate that observers are always also agents and that, as such, are always also //engaged/// in the world they seek to depict as objectively as possible.\n<<<\n\n''p.157'' - Muller cites Hegel r.e. the owl of Minerva (goddess of wisdom) who always flies only at dusk (at the end of the event to be explained)\n\n

''B. Levin & J.A. Riffel, //Schools and the Changing World: struggling toward the future// (London, 1997)''\n\n!Chapter 1 - Social Change and Organizational Response\n\n''p.7'' - Hargreaves (1994) - 7 key areas of change that affect the needs of students and the situation of schools:\n#The flexible economy\n#Globalization\n#The decline of certainty in knowledge\n#The need for organizations that are less rigidly structured\n#Changes in people's sense of self and the increasing pressure on individuals to define and create themselves (c.f. Giddens, 1994)\n#The growth of technological imagery and simulation\n#The compression of time and space\n\n''p.7'' - Beniger (1986) - identified more than 50 different claimed 'transformations' of society since 1945 (suggests that our readiness to embrace grand schemes of change may be greater than the changes themselves)\n\n''p.8-9'' - Grant & Murray (1996) - school change has not be revolutionary since its inception:\n<<<\nThe age-graded, centrally controlled and highly bureaucratized system of public schools has survived largely in the form in which it was invented in the late nineteenth century. Virtually all of the successful changes in the system could be classified as those that helped the system to expand, to extend its services or to become more efficient.\n<<<\n(I think this is 'public schools' in the American sense)\n\n''p.9'' - Larry Cuban (1988) - so many reforms, so little change:\n<<<\nso much school reform has take place over the last century yet schooling appears to be pretty much the same as it has always been.\n<<<\n\n''p.14'' - We can talk of wide trends, but change will always be local:\n<<<\nIn an important sense, identification or understanding of issues and changes is always local. The literature on schools and change may talk in terms of macro trends - changing technology, changing patterns of work, changing modes of organizing. But what people actually see in their daily lives are local and concrete manifestations of larger trends. We may all agree that 'the global economy' is an important change affecting education, but the meaning of this phrase will be quite different in a large urban centre and in a small rural community.\n<<<\n\n''p.15'' - David Cohen (1992, 1995) - changes must be voluntary, meaning no-one is in a position to change anything:\n<<<\nHe argues that schools are highly decentralized, with the capacity to make changes distributed not only among levels of government but also within the school among administrators, teachers and students. Changes in learning require changes in people's behaviour that must largely be voluntary, so that nobody is in a position to impose change in practice even when there is agreement on changes in policy. Changes in educational practice depend on changes in teachers' knowledge, their professional values and commitments and the social resources of teaching practice, yet these are not often the focus of reforms, which are themselves didactic in approach.\n<<<\n\n''p.16'' - Powell & Dimaggio (1991) - schools constrain options for change:\n<<<\nInstitutionalized arrangements are reproduced because individuals often cannot even conceive of appropriate alternatives (or because they regard as unrealistic the alternatives they can imagine). Institutions do not just constrain options: they establish the very criteria by which people discover their preferences. In other words, some of the most important sunk costs are cognitive.\n<<<\n(quotation from P&D)\n\n''p.18'' - 'Logic of confidence' - schools can remain pretty much unchanged so long as they are seen as embodying the right kind of activities and processes. 'Testing students becomes a substitute for actually taking steps to improve learning.' (c.f. Meyer & Rowan, 1977)\n\n''p.17'' - March & Olsen (1989) - paradox that effective adaptation to change will lead to less effective adaptation in future. The strategy introduced is effective, people commit to it and the organization adopts it as standard practice. However, conditions then change, and the strategy becomes less effective. Kaufman (1985) - making the organization more 'flexible' doesn't help necessarily as 'it is a paradox that maintaining flexibility can itself shut off options and impose limits to flexibility.'\n\n''p.17'' - Cuban (1988) - difference between ''first order'' and ''second order'' changes:\n*''First order changes'' - practices or activities change\n*''Second order changes'' - organization's sense of itself and its fundamental approach are altered\n\n\n!Chapter 4 - Learning about the Changing World\n\n''p.46'' - Schools and social change:\n<<<\nIn our view, the way school systems learn about social change may be suitable for understanding the local manifestations of change, but seem unlikely to help people achieve the bigger picture they need and want. Individuals are often thoughtful and outward-looking, but the school systems themselves were generally not. The ways that problems are addressed, that information is generated, that ideas are circulated, and that meaning is cultivated seem more likely to lead to a fragmented than a coherent understanding of the emerging place of education in a changing world... ''social change tends to be seen as interfering with the work of schooling rather than being seen as the backdrop that should give education its meaning and focus.''\n<<<\n(my emphasis)\n\n''p.58-59'' - Senge - //The Fifth Discipline// (1990) - we are indoctrinated against seeing the 'big picture':\n<<<\nFrom a very early age, we are taught to break apart problems, to fragment the world. This apparently makes complex tasks and subjects more manageable, but we pay an enormous hidden price. We can no longer see the consequences of our actions; we lost our intrinsic sense of connection to the larger whole. When we then try to 'see the big picture' we try to reassemble the fragments in our minds, to list and organize the pieces... the task is futile... similar to trying to reassemble the fragments of a broken mirror to see a true reflection.\n<<<\n\n''p.61'' - We need to rethink education and change:\n<<<\nTo find the intellectual keys to respond appropriately to social change, we need to broaden, not narrow, how we think of education and social change.\n<<<\n\n\n!Chapter 5 - How School Systems Respond to Social Change\n\n''p.64'' - West & Hopkins (1995) - UK schools do not have the power to create their own futures:\n<<<\n...the majority of schools are unprepared to exercise control over their own futures. They simply do not have the structures, the experience or the strategies necessary to move the school systematically in a given direction, even where there is increased clarity about what the direction should be.\n<<<\n(quotation from W&H)\n\n''p.65'' - Change in schools often relies on a group of committed volunteers. This results in many changes not being institutionalized and them dying if key staff leave.\n\n''p.65'' - March (1991) - schools don't have the structures to use new ideas and technologies:\n<<<\nSchools and other educational institutions have invested rather little in absorptive capacity... they have the capability of using new ideas that are close to their existing technologies, but they have not built an inventory of prior knowledge that would permit them to use radically new ideas intelligently. As a result, they tend to adopt the form but not the substance of new concepts.\n<<<\n(quotation from March)\n\n''p.71'' - Most educators don't want schools to change because they like it the way it is/was:\n<<<\nMost educators are people who liked school and were successful at it. They are not, then, oriented towards change, but towards preservation of what worked for them... Educators tend to believe that their real wisdom is found in practice, so that formal education, perhaps especially if it is unconventional, is often seen as impractical and of limited value - an irony in view of the daily commitment of educators themselves to formal education and prescribed curricula.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' does this actually make sense? don't they contradict themselves?)\n\n''p.72'' - Schools are 'stuck' due to the number of stakeholders involved:\n<<<\nOne can think of schools as caught in nets or webs; no single srand may be especially strong, but the overall effect is to prevent anything from moving very much. Moreover, the strands of the web are not only physical, but become internalized by those schools until they seem natural and inevitable. The limts may be more permeable than anyone imagines, but if they are not tested they remain real.\n<<<\n(follows on, new paragraph)\n<<<\nEstablishing a clear direction for change is also difficult because schooling is an activity with multiple, sometimes inconsistent, goals and few clear outcomes. Analytical processes are hard to apply in such situations because it isn't clear what should be analysed, or from what perspective.\n<<<\n\n\n! Chapter 6 - The Impact of a Changing Labor Market\n\n''p.78'' - OECD (1993):\n<<<\nOnly a well-trained and highly adaptable labour force can provide the capcity to adjust to structural change and seize new employment opportunities created by technological progress. Achieving this will in many cases entail a re-examination, perhaps radical, of the economic treatment of human resources and education.\n<<<\n\n''p.79'' - The reasonably well-paying industrial jobs open to school leavers at 16 with no further education have vanished in the UK. Not clear that moden economies actually require much higher numbers of educated workers - rate of increase in skilled jobs is slower than the rise in education levels (Berryman, 1992; Levin, 1995)\n\n''p.80'' - Can't motivate students to stay in school because of a job at the end of it any more:\n<<<\nInsofar as finishing high school has less impact that it used to on labor market outcomes, schools can expect serious problems of motivation for students. If the traditional promise of schooling - Stay in School and Get a Job - fails, it seems likely that it will be increasingly difficult to control students and to keep them interested for extrinsic reasons. Given the history especially of secondary schooling, the potential problem is very great indeed.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' this is why schools need to change radically and appeal much more to/develop the //intrinsic// motivation of students)\n\n\n! Chapter 7 - Schools Coping with the Impact of Information Technology\n\n''p.97'' - Schools view technology as efficient means of doing traditional things, instead of changing pedagogy - David (1992):\n<<<\nThe primary reason technology has failed to live up to its promise lies in the fact that it has been viewed as an answer tothe wrong question. Decisions about technology purchases and uses are typically driven by the question of how to improve the effectiveness of what schools are already doing - not how to transform what schools do... Moreover, as has been typical with innovations of the past, scant attention has been paid to preparing teachers and administrators to use new technology well and even less to their preferences about hardware and software.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' trying to develop School 1.5 instead of School 2.0?)\n\n''p.104'' - Suburban district administrator, quoted by the authors from an interview:\n<<<\nThe teacher previously was the depository of information, if not the sole one, certainly the main one. Now that is no longer the situation. The teacher is now a facilitator - not a reservoir of knowledge. Students are allowed to discover. In that respect the computer has had a significant effect on how we see teaching and learning.\n<<<\n\n''p.105'' - Rural district school administrator, quoted by the authors from an interview:\n<<<\nIf we use it teachers are going to have to change their style of teaching and allow students to be turned loose on projects. That shouldn't be too far in the future, I hope. I think we're making a big mistake by trying to hold the kids in classrooms and teach them stuff. There is some stuff you need to teach them, but I think they should be taught more about systems than stuff. They can always look the stuff up. I'm not sure how that applies to Science, but I'm sure that's the case with Social Studies.\n<<<\n\n''p.112-113'' - Reasons why technology doesn't transform schools instantly:\n<<<\nTechnology can transform the work of people, but often doesn't. One reason for this is that it is often used first to do old tasks; it takes time to discover new possibilities. Secondly, there are significant barriers to inquiry oriented instruction in schools - traditional models of teaching and learning are deeply embedded in the structure and culture of schools as well as in the minds of parents and policy makers in education (Cohen, 1987). Old ideas about practice die hard. For example, in contrast to North American reform initiatives, recent education policy in Britain has given much less emphasis to technology than to vehicles such as examinations and inspection systems as means of improving education.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' c.f. that Apple programme from the 1990s where pedagogy changed when students had access to computers each?)\n\n\n!Chapter 11 - Coping with Social Change: Themes and Suggestions\n\n''p.161'' - Halpin (1996) - how schools can react to 'threat' of technology:\n<<<\nConfronted by this wave of uncertainty, schools can respond, broadly speaking, in either one of two ways: they can imitate a particular version of the past in order to protect against chronic contingency, or they can engage with and anticipate change through innovation and risk-taking.\n<<<\n\n''p.161-165'' - Conclusions from authors' research:\n#Social change is seen as having powerful and often negative effects on schools, the appropriate responses to which are not at all evident.\n#School systems are not sufficiently oriented towards learning about the nature and implications of social change. When a learning stance is adopted, it seems more due to fortuitous circumstances than because of a deliberate desire to adopt such a stance.\n#Strategies for responding to change seemed limited and unimaginative.\n#Learning and change in systems are different than learning and change in individual organizations. Learning processes in educational systems are seriously inhibited by the dominance of conventional wisdom about the nature and purposes of schooling.\n#Some of the problems are intractable and many of the solutions are beyond the reach of schools alone. Nevertheless it seems reasonable to expect a more outward looking stance and more innovation on the part of schools and school systems. ''Moving beyond inherited ideas about the nature of learning, teaching and schooling will be a struggle. Still, we need to do better. People can achieve a lot more than they think, in much simpler ways than they believe.''\n(my emphasis)

''R.W. Burniske & L. Monke, //Breaking Down the Digital Walls: learning to teach in a post-modem world// (New York, 2001)''\n\n!Chapter 1 - The Manabi Hut (R.W. Burniske)\n\n''p.9'' - Danger of representing things as we wish them to be, not how they actually are - Jacobs re-telling one of Aesop's fables (1984):\n<<<\nA Man and a Lion were discussing the relative strength of men and lions in general. The Man contended that he and his fellows were stronger than lions by reason of their greater intelligence. "Come now with me," he cried, "and I will soon prove that I am right." So he took him into the public gardens and showed him a statue of Hercules overcoming the Lion and tearing his mouth in two. "That is all very well," said the Lion, "but proves nothing, for it was a man who made the statue."\n Moral: We can easily represent things as we wish them to be.\n<<<\n\n''p.11'' - Percentage of people who can be classified as 'innovators' = 2.5% of a given population, whereas roughly 13% prove to be 'early adopters' (Rogers, 1995)\n\n\n!Chapter 2 - The Web and the Plow (L. Monke)\n\n''p.21'' - The side-effects of advances in technology are not always obvious - Postman (1988):\n<<<\nWhen Gutenberg announced that he could manufacture books... he did not imagine that his invention would undermine the authority of the Catholic Church. And yet, less than eighty years later, Martin Luther was, in effect, claiming that with the word of God available in every home, Christians did not require the papacy to interpret if for them.\n<<<\n\n''p.21'' - Postman (1993) - technologies are ecological: their introduction sends out ripples that rearrange relationships throughout the system.\n\n''p.21'' - Technologies have explicit and implicit effects:\n<<<\nRegardless of the technologies' intended uses, they also work at a deeper, personal level, influencing, though not fully determining, the way we act, the way we think, the way we view the world (Borgmann, 1984)... Each time I choose a tool to use, certain values get amplified while others get reduced (Bowers, 1988; Ihde, 1990). These values, in turn, tend to both reflect and influence my entire worldview.\n<<<\n(the computer amplifies the 'logic' worldview, the utilitarian picture)\n\n''p.21-22'' - Theodore Roszak - "We do not bring the full resources of self to the computer" (1986)\n(''My thought:'' is this actually true any more? //Are// we limited when using a computer any more than pen & paper, etc.?)\n\n''p.24'' - Max Frisch - defined technology as "the knack of so arranging the world that we do not experience it".\n\n''p.25'' - Great quotation about the limits of the knowledge available through uses of technology:\n<<<\nSitting high atop the computer, students may be able to survey thousands, millions of acres of knowledge, but only if those students forgo taking the time to sink their hands deep and long into the educational soil that lies right at their feet.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' isn't this a bit too much of a romantic notion? If schools were amazingly good and relevant, there would be no need for change...)\n\n''p.27'' - Teachers //shouldn't// become the 'guide on the side':\n<<<\nWhat I have been trying to hammer home is that using computer technology in education is hard work; not in the sense of getting the machinery to work or the kids "talking" to one another across the oceans and mountains and prairies; that's really the easy part. The hard work is finding ways to get the technology to help us nurture our students' attempts to reach their own highest human potential. With the perplexing task to integrating computer technology with print and oral traditions before us, now is hardly the time for the teacher to step aside and become "the guide on the side" to please the wide-eyed technophiles. The responsibility we have for preserving what is dear to us from the old as well as discovering what is truly beneficial in the new is enormous, and not something to be left to chance encounters in cyberspace.\n<<<\n\n''p.29'' - We shouldn't be afraid to experiment - Mike Rose (1989):\n<<<\nError marks the place where education begins.\n<<<\n\n\n!Chapter 5 - Out of the Labyrinth, Into the 'Net (R.W. Burniske)\n\n''p.87'' - Need for a balance between the old and the new - quote from Ovid:\n<<<\nI warn you, Icarus, he said, you must follow a course midway between earth and heaven, in case the sun should scorch your feathers, if you go too high, or the water make them heavy if you are too low. Fly halfway between the two.\n<<<\n(followed on the same page by the next quotation)\n<<<\nDrawn on by his eagerness for the open sky, he left his guide and soared upwards, till he came too close to the blazing sun.\n<<<\n\n''p.87'' - In Ancient Greece, the //paidagogos// was a slave who escorted children to and from school. This is where we get the word 'pedagogy' from - the strategies employed to accomplish this task. However, teachers should not be cast in this role:\n<<<\nSadly enough, modern educators in K-12 schools often feel like the //paidagogos//. They have good reason: state and local organizations deliver prescribed curricula to administrators who enforce them through the assignment of designated texts, regimented report cards, and standardized tests and teacher evaluations.\n\nThis is hardly a conducive environment for innovative teachers. If anything, the system's design frustrates innovators and impedes the diffusion of their innovations (Rogers, 1995).\n<<<\n\n''p.128'' - We need to move away from facts for facts' sake - c.f. Gradgrind in Charles Dickens' //Hard Times//:\n<<<\nNow, what I want is Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out everything else.\n<<<\n\n''p.129'' - Information is not knowledge, and knowledge is not wisdom - Harris (1998):\n<<<\nKnowledge is private, while information is public. Knowledge, therefore, cannot be communicated; only information can be shared. Whenever an attempt to communicate knowledge is made, it is automatically translated into information, which other learners can choose to absorb, act upon and transform into their own knowledge, if they so desire.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' is this really the case - can't we have knowledge residing in networks? c.f. George Siemens, //Knowing Knowledge//)\n\n\n!Chapter 6 - The Global Suburb (L. Monke)\n\n''p.131'' - Thomas Berry (1988):\n<<<\nThe very structure of our technological civilization prevents us from communicating in depth with the native peoples.\n<<<\n\n\n!Chapter 7 - The Media Matter (R.W. Burniske)\n\n''p.197'' - Teachers need to teach students the correct 'attitude' and approaches when using technology - not necessarily the skills - c.f. Henry Gregor Felsen, //Hot Rod// (mid-century book about automobiles in America):\n<<<\nThese young drivers have learned to drive. They can operate a car all right, and make it go as fast as anyone else, but they haven't learned the one most important factor in driving - the proper attitude.\n<<<\n\n''p.198'' - Problems in replacing the traditional curricula - Lanham (1994):\n<<<\nOnce you abolish rhetorical education, then you must ask, "How then, do I teach decorum. What else do I use for my behavioral allegory?" Property? Stuff? And what about the teaching of language? Once it has become simply instrumental, the clear, brief, and sincere transmission of neutral fact from one neutral entity to another, it loses it numinosity and then its power, as our present literacy crisis attests. If you pursue only clarity, you guarantee obscurity. And people lose their vital interest in language, as any composition teacher can attest. The "literacy crisis" is not only a social crisis, a crisis of instructional leverage, of educational policy, although it is all of those. It comes from the repudiation of the rhetorical heart of Western education, and its linguistic and behavioral education in decorum.\n<<<\n(''My thought:'' this completely misses the point of the purpose of education. The purpose of education is so that young people can make sense of the world around them and become positive contributing members of the society to which they belong. Saying that we should be doing this because education has always been done that way is simply wrong and, at worst, dangerous.)\n\n''p.203'' - Administrators should not be responsible for student learning, teachers should - c.f. Joseph Weizenbaum (1976):\n<<<\n...the range of one's responsibilities must be commensurate with the range of one's actions.\n<<<\n\n\n!Chapter 8 - In Dreams Begin Responsibilities (L. Monke)\n\n''p.206-7'' - Teachers should be neither the 'sage on the stage' nor the 'guide on the side'. Neither metaphor is a good way of going about educating students, as it's all to do with relationships and the development of the individual - not an impersonal tour of knowledge. Better metaphor = being a ''steward''.\n\n''p.219'' - Postman (1995) - purpose of schools not necessarily about education:\n<<<\nschools are not now and have never been chiefly about getting information to children.\n<<<\n\n''p.220'' - Postman (1993) - schools need to adapt:\n<<<\nFor four hundred years, school-teachers have been part of the knowledge monopoly created by printing, and they are now witnessing the breakup of that monopoly. It appears as if they can do little to prevent that breakup, but surely there is something perverse about school-teachers' being enthusiastic about what is happening.\n<<<\n(talking about TV)\n\n''p.222'' - Dewey (1916) - problem of adults educating children they will not inherit:\n<<<\nEach generation is inclined to educate its young so as to get along in the present world instead of with a view to the proper end of education: the promotion of the best possible realization of humanity as humanity.\n<<<\n\n''p.225'' - Douglas Noble, //The Classroom Arsenal// (1991) - purpose of education:\n<<<\nThe goals of education is neither the engineering of learning as an end in itself nor the production of cognitive components or technical skills for the technological infrastructure of the information age; rather it is the cultivation of human beings, through an encouragement of a deep self-understanding along with an understanding of and participation in the world. The best schools are those that are personalized, that are organized as communities of teachers, students and parents who are fully engaged, who understand why they are learning and teaching, and who together construct a full, rich inter-disciplinary curriculum, a nurturing, attentive pedagogy, and a sense of worldly commitment and care.\n<<<\n\n''p.226'' - Education depends very much on conceptions of knowledge and truth - Parker J. Palmer (1998):\n<<<\nI understand truth as the passionate and disciplined process of inquiry and dialogue itself, as the dynamic conversation of a community that keeps testing old conclusions and coming into new ones.\n<<<\n\n\n!Chapter 9 - The Drama of Dialectics (R.W. Burniske & L. Monke)\n\n''p.256-7'' - Technology = skills as well as machines - Bolter (1991):\n<<<\nThere is good etymological reason to broaden our definition of technology to include skills as well as machines. The Greek root of "technology" is //techne// and for the Greeks a techne could be an art or a craft, "a set of rules, system or method of making or doing, whether of the useful arts, or the fine arts." (Liddell and Scott, 1973). In the ancient world physical technology was simpler, and the ancients put a correspondingly greater emphasis on the skill of the craftsman - the potter, the stone-mason, or the carpenter. In his dialogue the Phaedrus, Plato calls the alphabet itself a techne. He would also have called the ancient book composed of ink on papyrus a techne; Homeric epic poetry was also a techne, as was Greek tragedy. All the ancient arts and crafts have this in common: that the craftsman must develop a skills, a technical state of mind in using tools and materials. ''Ancient and modern writing is a technology in just this sense. It is a method for arranging verbal thoughts in a visual space.'' The writer always needs a surface upon which to make his or her marks and a tool with which to make them, and these materials help to define the nature of the writing. Writing with quill and parchment is a different skill from writing with a printing press, which in turn differs from writing with a computer.\n<<<\n(my emphasis)\n\n''p.258'' - Advantage of computers is that it shows how stale and boring traditional teaching actually is:\n<<<\nEven the most diehard Luddite has to admit that the computer has been the catalyst for accomplishing something neither Dewey nor Montessori nor all the radical reformers of the sixties could do: actually convince the general public that a curriculum taught by poorly prepared teachers, working in physical and categorical isolation out of dull textbooks, makes for boring, irrelevant learning. This is perhaps the computer's greatest contribution to education.\n<<<

''McCormick, R., 'Practical Knowledge: A View from the Snooker Table' (in R. McCormick & C. Paechter (eds.), //Learning and Knowledge//, OUP, 1999)''\n\n''p.112'' - Teachers tend to teach theoretical knowledge rather than practical knowledge because it is more widely applicable:\n<<<\nOne of our premises as teachers is that we teach academic or theoretical knowledge because it is applicable in all situations, unlike practical knowledge that is limited to particular situations. We assume that theoretical knowledge is decontextualised, and therefore it can be transferred from the classroom and used in practical situations outside schools and colleges.\n<<<\n(McCormick wants to argue that this is not the case)\n\n''p.113'' - Snooker players need to have both theoretical //and// practical knowledge in order to be successful. The difference between snooker players and mathematicians/physicists illustrates McCormick's thinking.\n\n''p.123-4'' - Even if people are taught things abstractly, they do not store them (as knowledge) as such:\n<<<\nThe reason we teach Newton's laws of motion and not, for example, snooker, in science lessons is that these laws are general and not bound by any particular context. It is assumed that the science knowledge is abstract and therefore independent of context, in other words it is 'decontextualised knowledge'... That we need abstract and symbolic knowledge such as science and mathematics is beyond dispute but that people understand it in some abstract and symbolic form in their heads, is more difficult to sustain.\n<<<\n\n''p.126'' - Knowledge isn't just 'in the head', it is bound up with //activity//:\n<<<\nMost of us no doubt assume that knowledge is in the head, and that we dig it out of our memory banks to use it for some task (whether that task is of the kind we find in schools or colleges, or ones that are part of daily life). There are a collection of approaches to cognition and learning that argue that knowledge is integrated with activity, along with the tools, sign systems and skills associated with the activity. In this sense knowledge guides action, and action guides knowledge. This is not just an individual affair, as some of th eknowledge may be accumulated social knowledge.\n<<<\n(c.f. my thinking about needing to be exposed to many tokens of the same type to gain //true// knowledge of something)\n\n

''Glaser, R., 'Expert Knowledge and Processes of Thinking' (in R. McCormick & C. Paechter (eds.), //Learning and Knowledge//, OUP, 1999)''\n\n''p.89'' - Experts recognise patterns:\n<<<\nThe study of expert/novice differences in other domains [than chess] has deepened our appreciation of the significance of the experts' perceptions of patterns. This perceptiveness, we can now suggest, is one of the critical manifestations of experts' highly organized, integrated structures of knowledge.\n<<<\n(even expert chess players find it difficult to memorize a randomly laid-out chess board)\n\n''p.91-2'' - Six generalizations r.e. experts' structures of knowledge:\n#//Experts' proficiency is very specific// - where random or meaningless patterns or involved, experts experience a 'disruption in proficiency'.\n#//Experts perceive large, meaningful patterns// - the recognition of patterns occurs so rapidly that it takes on the character of intuition.\n#//Experts' problem solving entails selective search of memory or use of general problem-solving tactics// - experts have an efficiency of search that comes from their knowledge being structured and patterned, ready for retrieval.\n#//Experts' knowledge is highly procedural and goal-oriented// - experts can far more readily relate items of information in cause-and-effect sequences towards a particular goal.\n#//Experts' knowledge enables them to use self-regulatory processes with great skill// - experts are self-aware r.e. their own skills and abilities. Whilst novices may be quicker initially, experts are quicker at problem-solving in the long-run, as they do not deal with just surface features.\n#//Experts' proficiency can be routinized or adaptive// - experts can function in different ways, some can be tied to the demands of the task and conditions, whereas others develop the capability for //opportunistic planning//.\n\n''p.94'' - Bartholomae (1985) - student has to re-invent the context for each situation in which they write:\n<<<\nEvery time a student sits down to write for us, he has to invent the university for the occasion - invent the university or a branch of it, that is, like history or anthropology, or economics, or biology. He has to learn to speak our language, to speak as we do, to try on the peculiar ways of knowing, selecting, evaluating, reporting, concluding, and arguing that define the discourse of our comunity.\n<<<\n(explains why some experts when they feel at a loss when asked to operate outside of their disciplines)\n\n''p.94'' - The way that people argue, debate and discuss are learned behaviours:\n<<<\nStudents who are novice writers in a domain are not necessarily inept thinkers; they are rather insufficiently familiar not only with information about specialized topics but also with the specific conventions or techniques of expository discourse - the procedures for describing and arguing for an interpretations or for presenting claims and counterclaims. The patterns of reasoning that we expect in academic writing are not inherent in our thinking; they are conventional, learnable forms of argumentation and rhetoric.\n<<<\n\n''p.98-99'' - Having a model, theory or principle that guides performance allows individuals to 'avoid disconnected trial and error':\n<<<\nThis permits understanding of one's performance, the swift and graceful recovery from error, and the seizing of opportunities for more elegant and precise solution and discovery. Expertise then becomes more than a matter of sheer efficiency and, as it is acquired, knowledge becomes an object for questioning and learning from experience and, thereby, is reorganized to enable new thought and action.\n<<<\n...therefore (follows on)\n<<<\nAn essential aim of instruction and the design of curriculum materials should be to enable the student to acquire structured knowledge along with procedural skill. Too often the fragmented bits of information supplied by textbook and teaching presentations do not encourage students to construct organized knowledge usable for thinking and principled performance.\n<<<\n\n''p.99'' - The social context to learning is an extremely important consideration:\n<<<\nCognitive activity in school and outside is inseparable from a cultural milieu. The acquisition of competent performance takes place in an interpersonal system in which participation and guidance from others influences the understanding of new situations and the management of problem solving that leads to learning.\n<<<\n\n

''Grossman, P.L. & Stodolsky, S.S., 'Content as Context: the role of school subjects in secondary school teaching' (in R. McCormick & C. Paechter (eds.), //Learning and Knowledge//, OUP, 1999)''\n\n''p.234-5'' - Most studies of schools focus on the whole school rather than individual school subjects. The authors argue that 'the nature of the parent discipline and features of the school subject, as well as teachers' beliefs regarding the subject, help create a conceptual context within which teachers work.' Authors will argue that 'these subcultures are characterized by differing beliefs, norms, and practices that affect teachers' work and responses to reform efforts'.\n\n''p.237'' - Teachers in some subject areas have more freedom than those in others:\n<<<\n...teachers of broad, less well-defined subjects, such as English or social studies, may feel a greater sense of curricular autonomy than do teachers of more defined and more sequential school subjects. Because the subjects they teach are so broad, they may feel they need to make individual choices about what to include and what not to include.\n<<<\n\n''p.242'' - If teachers have autonomy, they are more likely to resent reforms:\n<<<\nIf they perceive and value greater autonomy over the content to be taught as an inherent feature of the subject they teach, teachers may resent reforms that threaten to deprive them of this autonomy. At the same time, such policies may have th side-effect of encouraging more departmental coordination of th ecurriculum or at least discussion of what is being taught...\n<<<\n\n\n

''Cromer, A., //Connected Knowledge: Science, Philosophy, and Education// (Oxford, 1997)''\n\n''__Chapter 7 - Of Chalk and Chips__''\n\n''p.121'' - We take some educational technology for granted:\n<<<\nAfter printing, the most important technological innovations in education have been inexpensive paper and the blackboard. We take it for granted that every child has unlimited amounts of paper on which to write and draw, but this is really a luxury of industrial societies that isn't available to many children in undeveloped regions of the world... The humble blackboard is the epitome of a successful educational technology. Its essential characteristics of universality, accessibility, and flexibility become apparent, as to the functions of a gene, only when they are lost.\n<<<\n\n''p.121'' - Educational technology has its drawbacks:\n<<<\nThe effectiveness of a technology for education is always limited by the weakest link in the whole implementation process. You can't connect a drinking straw to a fire hydrant.\n<<<\n\n''p.125'' - An educational technology has to be ubiquitous to be truly effective and contribute to significant learning gains:\n<<<\nThe personal computer is as revolutionary an innovation as paper, but its full impact on education won't be realized until it becomes as universal as paper, that is, until every child can put her hands on one any time she wants. In spite of the millions of computers in schools, schoolwork is still done almost exclusively by hand.\n<<<\n\n''p.126'' - We need cheap computers:\n<<<\nThe computer revolution in education would be greatly accelerated if the manufacturers agreed to produce a standard school computer with standard software that sold for under $200. At this price every elementary-school student and teacher could have one, transforming the school environment from paper to keyboard.\n<<<\n(c.f. OLPC?)\n\n''p.126'' - Schools shouldn't even try to keep up with the latest developments in technology:\n<<<\nSchools can never keep up with the explosive pace of the microcomputer revolution, since it takes decades to develop effective computer-based curricula and to train every teacher in it, whereas computers change every two years. Schools will never have the time and money to stay at the cutting edge of technology, nor is there any reason that they should...[A] universal computer is the best for everyone's children because, over time, every teacher will incorporate it into her teaching. It's of little value to a rich school to have a lot of new equipment that only a few teachers have the time or interest to fully use. The technology doesn't do much good on its own.\n<<<\n\n''p.130'' - There is no extra time to learn how to use educational technology, which can be a barrier:\n<<<\nIt's a zero-sum game. Time programming a calculator is time not listening to a physics lecture. Time on the Internet is time spent not reading a book. It would be nice if schools that are spending millions of dollars for new computer had done a cost-benefit analysis showing that time spent on computers was more productive than time spent on more traditional activities, but I know of no such studies.\n<<<\n//(would it really? isn't it about developing digital literacy and motivation too?)//\n\n''p.132'' - Talks about what a low-cost computer would look like in practice (seems to have been read by OLPC manufacturers!)

''Bigum, C., 'Design Sensibilities, Schools and the New Computing and Communication Technologies' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Silicon Literacies: Communication, Innovation and Education in the Electronic Age//, London, 2002)''\n\n''p.131'' - How new technologies are adopted:\n<<<\nWhen a new technology, particularly a communication technology, is developed its take-up is not automatic. How it is taken up is also a matter of conjecture (Bigum 2000). But whatever the mechanism, the user has to be convinced there is some advantage in using the new technology. Typically, persuasion is based upon improving an existing practice by making it more effective or efficient.\n<<<\n//(the problem with this, of course, is that it leads to 'School 1.5' instead of 'School 2.0' - instead of new things in new ways we get old things in new ways)//\n\n''p.133'' - Links to my aside above about doing what has been done before - seeing everything through an existing lens:\n<<<\nThe domestication of CCTs [Computing and Communications Technologies] can be seen in terms of bringing together a resilient and long-standing paper and pencil curriculum designed and developed to serve the needs of an industrial era, with a view of CCTs as educational or learning technologies. What resutls is a focus on 'the how' of using CCTs in classrooms with little attention paid to 'the what' and 'the why' (Bigum and Green 1993). Seeing CCTs as significant only in terms of how to teach and learn is related to a persistent 'horseless carriage' perspective on CCTs. This view regards the new, even though the new is in many respects now twenty years old, as not much different from the familiar, and continues to see it in those terms. Thus teaching, learning, curriculum or assessment practices many not be appropriate for a world outside schools, increasingly shaped by the use of CCTs. Domestication produces a kinds of reassurance that schools are doing something about CCTs. Such reassurances are implicit in the practices which are given labels like 'information literacy' or 'computer literacy'. They are consistent with an assumption that the new, digital world is really not that different from the world for which schools had become so rehearsed at preparing the young (Lankshear and Knobel 2000; Lankshear //et al.// 2000)\n<<<\n\n''p.135'' - Schrage (2000) - it's easy to misrepresent what technologies are actually about:\n<<<\nTo say that the Internet is about 'information' is a bit like saying that 'cooking' is about oven temperatures; it's technically accurate but fundamentally untrue.\n<<<\n\n''p.135'' - Schrage (2000) - the biggest impact that digital technologies are having and will continue to have is to alter the //relationships// between people and organizations.\n//(this is a really important point - schools don't get this at all...)//

''Burnett, R., Technology, Learning and Visual Culture (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Silicon Literacies: Communication, Innovation and Education in the Electronic Age//, London, 2002)''\n\n''p.141-2'' - Felman (1982) - quotes Socrates and Freud both talking at different times about the 'radical impossibility of teaching'. Burnett - recognition of this 'enables and encourages the development of new and innovative approaches to pedagogy and learning'. Felman (1982) - learning never progresses along a 'simple one-way road from ignorance to knowledge.'\n\n''p.141'' - Importance of popular culture:\n<<<\nPopular culture provides a central if not crucial foundation for the lives of students. Often, in not recognising the centrality of popular culture, teachers may be missing some of the most important elements in students' understanding of their own lives.\n<<<\n\n''p.142'' - The classroom is not necessarily the best place to understand what motivates students:\n<<<\nThe history of education is full of experiments and noble efforts at change. My intuition has always been that learning comes about when we understand what motivates or attracts us to a particular set of ideas or practices. The difficulty for the teacher is that the classroom is not necessarily the best place to discover those motivations. The classroom as an environment often does not easily facilitate the type of personal interaction that permits students and teacher to recognise the elliptical nature of the communication processes in which they are engaging. This would apply to environments in which technology is embedded as well as to classrooms in which technology is not the essential characteristic.\n<<<\n\n''p.142'' - In 1913 Thomas Edison predicted that textbooks would 'soon be obsolete in the schools' because of motion pictures. Similar predictions accompanied the diffusion of radio in the 1920s and 1930s and television in the 1950s.\n\n''p.143-4'' - Teachers need to understand popular culture - including the Internet:\n<<<\nIf classrooms are to be places of exchange, then students and teachers need to feel comfortable about their relationship to popular culture. THis also means rethinking how the Web operates, because it is fundamentally a window into the concerns and narratives of popular culture. If we factor in th role that computer and online games have in defining a cultural orientation, then th urgency of developing creative tools to critique visual cultures is all the more central to the task of teaching and learning. ''Somewhere between the classroom, the home and the street, we will find that learning has moved far beyond the conventional competencies that teachers look for in their students. Driven by a combination of new and old technologies as well as social and economic change, learning now takes place in so many different ways and venues, that we need a far more integrative and holistic approach to pedagogy.''\n<<<\n//(my emphasis)//\n\n''p.144'' - Fundamental guidelines that provide a foundation for an integrative pedagogical approach:\n<<<\n#Popular and visual cultures are immersed in technology. ''Learners are both the progenitors and creators of technological innovation.''\n#Resistance and acquiescence drive learning. Cultural phenomena are part of a complex system through which a variety of central narratives are constructed. These narratives are the content of the media and if we are to connect learning to context, we need to know and understand these stories.\n#''Classrooms are public arenas of exchange''. Networked learning does not eliminate the contradictions, potential and pitfalls of the classroom experience. Technology is never a substitute for interpersonal exchange and I say this even as Internet technologies are redefining what we mean by public discourse and public spaces as well as interactivity and human conversation.\n#''The search for meaning occurs through patterning''; learners construct meaning through creating patterns of connections (Marshall 2000).\n#Connections mean connectivity, which cannot be achieved unless there is a genuine understanding of how the process of communications works. This means that students must participate in the creation of the learning experience. This is not only for themselves, but also for the teachers who teach them. ''Communication is about an exchange among equals and/or those who strive for equality''.\n#An interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary approach is needed if a new paradigm of learning is to be created and the use of technologies must be factored at all levels (Stephens 2000).\n<<<\n//(my emphases)//\n\n''p.145'' - Technologies are not the answer to everything - they are //tools//:\n<<<\nUltimately, new technologies are instruments of communication and are helping to create what might best be described as an ecology where the ways in which we interact with each other will be increasingly mediated by machines.\n<<<\n\n

Clarence Fisher - //[[A New Language|http://remoteaccess.typepad.com/remote_access/2007/03/a_new_language.html]]//\n<<<\n...the learning of a student in a globally connected educator's classroom is both quantitatively and qualitatively different from the learning of a student in a different classroom. Not only do I believe that these two students would obviously be learning very different things, but that the actual structure of their learning is different. They have a different experience of what learning is, of what counts as knowledge, and of how learning happens.\n\nThe same is true for the teachers themselves. Globally connected educators believe that different kinds of things count as knowledge and are important enough for kids to know. Globally connected educators believe that learning happens in different ways, using different tools, and in different spaces and times that teachers not involved in learning in these ways may not see.\n\nSo this is bringing on a split, a new kind of digital divide.\n<<<

''Kellner, D.M., 'Technological Revolution, Multiple Literacies, and the Restructuring of Education' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Silicon Literacies: communication, innovation and education in the electronic age//, London, 2002)'' \n\n''p.154'' - We need to use the power of new technologies to transform our world for the better:\n<<<\nAs new technologies are altering every aspect of our society and culture, we need to comprehend and make use of them both to understand and to transform our worlds. By introducing new literacies to empower individuals and groups traditionally excluded, education could thus be reconstructed to make it more responsive to the challenges of a democratic and multicultural society.\n<<<\n\n''p.155'' - We are undergoing a technological revolution:\n<<<\nJust as the transition to print literacy and book culture involved a dramatic transformation of education, so too does the current technological revolution demand a major restructuring of education today with new curricula, pedagogy, literacies, practices and goals. \n<<<\n\n''p.155'' - Education is currently a 'preparation for industrial civilisation and minimal citizenship in a passive-representative democracy', whereas it should be preparing people for 'a more informed, participatory and active citizenship':\n<<<\nModern education, in short, emphasises submission to authority, rote memorisation, and what Freire called the 'banking concept' of education in which learned teachers deposit knowledge into passive students, inculcating conformity, subordination and normalisation. These traits are becoming obsolete in a global post-industrial and networked society with its demands for new skills for the workplace, participation in new social and political environs, and interaction with novel forms of culture through everyday life.\n<<<\n\n''p.157'' - Some attempts to use technology for education will fail, and some attempts will have unforeseen negative side-effects.\n\n''p.157'' - Definition of literacy:\n<<<\nLiteracy involves gaining the skills and knowledge to read and interpret the text of the world and to successfully navigate and negotiate its challenges, conflicts, and crises. Literacy is thus a necessary condition to equip people to participate in the local, national and global economy, culture, and polity.\n<<<\n\n''p.158-9'' - We need to understand that there are many different types of literacy - //critical media literacy//, for example, is more important than ever.\n\n''p.161'' - Kellner's definition of 'computer literacy':\n<<<\nComputer literacy comprises the accessing and processing of diverse sorts of information proliferating in the so-called 'information society'. It encompasses learning to find sources of information ranging from traditional sites like libraries and print media to new Internet websites and search engines. Computer-information literacy involves learning where information is found, how to access it, and how to organise, interpret, and evaluate the information that ones seeks.\n<<<\n\n''p.162'' - Computer literacy is //about communication// as well as knowledge and skills:\n<<<\nGenuine computer literacy involves not just technical knowledge and skills, but refined reading, writing, research, and communicating ability. It involves heightened capacities for critically accessing, analysing, interpreting, processing, and storing both print-based and multimedia material. In a new information/entertainment society, immersed in transformative multimedia technology, knowledge and information come not merely in the form of print and words, but through images, sounds and multimedia material as well. Computer literacy thus also involves the ability to discover and access information and intensified abilities to read, to scan texts and computer databases and websites, and to access information and images in a variety of forms, ranging from graphics, to visual images, to audio and video materials, to good old print media.\n<<<\n\n''p.163'' - Overarching 'literacy' involves many different sub-literacies:\n<<<\nAs technological convergence develops apace, individuals need to combine the skills of critical media literacy with traditional print literacy and new forms of multiple literacies to access and navigate the new multimedia environments. ''Literacy in this conception involves the abilities to engage effectively in socially constructed forms of communication and representation.'' Reading and interpreting print was the appropriate mode of literacy for books, while critical media literacy entails reading and interpreting discourse, images, spectacle, narratives, and the forms and genres of media culture. \n<<<\n//(my emphasis)//\n\n''p.163'' - The pedagogies behind 'multiple literacies' are still evolving:\n<<<\nWhile traditional literacies concern practices in contexts that are governed by rules and conventions, the conventions and rules of multiliteracies are currently evolving so that their pedagogies comprise a new although bustling and competitive field.\n<<<\n\n''p.164'' - Technology means we need to re-examine the //purpose// and //structure// of education:\n<<<\nIndeed, the new technologies and cultural spaces require us to rethink education in its entirity, ranging from the role of the teacher, teacher-student relations, classroom instruction, grading and testing, the value and limitations of books, multimedia, and other teaching material, and the goals of education itself.\n<<<\n\n''p.164'' - Technology not only provides us with practical problems, but philosophical ones as well:\n<<<\nOnline education and virtual learning also confront us with novel problems such as copyright and ownership of educational materials; collaborations between computer programmers, artists and designers, and teachers and students in the construction of teaching material and sites; and the respective role of federal and local government, the community, corporations, and private organisations in financing education and providing the skills and tools necessary for a new world economy and global culture. Furthermore, the technological revolution forces a rethinking of philosophical problems of knowledge, truth, identity, and reality in virtual environments. Both philosophy and philosophy of education must be reconstructed to meet the challenges of democracy and a new high tech economy.\n<<<\n\n''p.165-6'' - We mustn't allow technology to decontextualise learning:\n<<<\nFurther, creating multiple literacies must be contextual, engaging the life-world of the students and teachers participating in the new adventures of education. Learning involves developing abilities to interact intelligently with the environment and other people, and calls for vibrant social and conversational environments. Education requires doing and can be gained from practice and social interaction. One can obviously spend too much time with technologies and failt o develop basic social skills and competencies.\n<<<\n\n''p.166'' - The current time is a time to //experiment// with new technologies:\n<<<\nThis is a time of challenge and a time for experiment. It is a time to put existing pedagogies, practices, and educational philosophies in question and to construct new ones. It is a time for new pedagogical experiments to see what works and what doesn't work. It is a time to reflect on our goals and to discern what we want to achieve with education and how to achieve it.\n<<<

''Snyder, I., 'Communication, Imagination, Critique - Literacy Education for the Electronic Age' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Silicon Literacies: communication, innovation and education in the electronic age//, London, 2002) ''\n\n''p.177'' - Bauman (2001) - a distinctive mark of contemporary living is an overwhelming feeling of uncertainty - the world is essentially 'undecidable, uncontrollable and hence frightening'. \n\n''p.178'' - Bourdieu (1998) - a hold on the present must precede any intention to transform it. This is difficult to achieve given the 'precariousness' of the contemporary life. People have no control over mysterious forces called 'recession', 'competitiveness', etc.\n\n//(this is a reason why we need to change what we teach in schools)//\n\n\n''p.179'' - The present period is marked by 'radical instability' (Kress 2000). \n\n''p.179'' - One of the central changes is that of communication:\n<<<\nCentral to all these changes is the altering of the landscape of representation and communication. We are in the midst of a shift from an era of mass communication to an era of individuated communication; from unidirectional communication from a centre to the ass, to multidirectional communication from many locations; from the 'passive' audience to the 'interactive' audience. Clearly, these changes have direct and profound implications for literacy education - not just for the future, but also for the present.\n<<<\n\n''p.179'' - Great quotation r.e. schools:\n<<<\n''The world for which schools were formed no longer exists.'' Except for our inevitable death, the future is unknowable and unpredictable.\n<<<\n//(my emphasis)//\n\n''p.181'' - 21st century literacy education:\n<<<\nA central aim of effective literacy education in the electronic age is to provide students with opportunities to learn not only how to communicate more effectively, but also how to respond in critical and informed ways to the disintegration of conventional world views, world orders and social formations, a process mediated and accelerated by the availability of increasingly sophisticated electronic technologies.... We need to develop pedagogical and curriculum frameworks that seek to endow students with a sense of their place in the new global system, but also with the capacity to view that system critically.\n<<<\n\n

''Eyman, D., Digital Literac(ies), Digital Discourses, and Communities of Practice: Literacy Practices in Virtual Environments (Cultural Practices of Literacy Study, Working Paper #12, no date)''\n\n''p.4'' - Kress, //Literacy in the New Media Age// (2003):\n<<<\n…literacy is the term to use when we make messages using letters as the means of recording that message….my approach leaves us with the problem of finding new terms for the uses of the different resources: not therefore “visual literacy" for the use of image; not “gestural literacy" for the use of gesture; and also not musical “literacy" or “soundtrack literacy" for the use of sound other than speech; and so on.\n<<<\n\n''p.7'' - 'Digital literacy' is a better term than 'computer literacy':\n<<<\nI prefer the term “digital literacy" because I believe it captures the notion that the literacy practices referred to are enacted in digital spaces. I would contrast this sense of media, location, and context with terms such as “computer literacy" which evokes a concept of mere tool use, “internet literacy" which is too specific both in locale and in historical moment, and “electronic literacy" which is too broad in scope (as it can be seen as referencing any electronic device). “Technological literacy" or “technology literacy" is similarly too broad, as nearly all modes of communication are technologies—so there is no functional distinction between print-based literacy and digital literacy.\n<<<\n\n''p.7-8'' - Snyder (2002) - 'Silicon Literacy':\n<<<\nNow, for the first time in history, the written, oral and audiovisual modalities of communication are integrated into multimodal hypertext systems made accessible via the Internet and the World Wide Web. Silicon literacy practices represent the ways in which meanings are made within these new communication systems.\n<<<\n\n''p.20'' - Alan Luke (2003) argues that schools define literate practice:\n<<<\nLiterate practice is situated, constructed, and intrapsychologically negotiated through an (artificial) social field called school, with rules of exchange denoted in scaffolded social activities around particular selected texts. But any acquired skills, whether basic or higher order, are reconstituted and remediated in relation to variable fields of power and practice in the larger community.\n<<<

''Rodríguez Illera, J.L., 'Digital Literacies' (//Interactive Educational Multimedia//, number 9 (November 2004), pp. 48-62)''\n\n''p.49-50'' - Convoluted definition of literacy, but does get a handle on something:\n<<<\nOn the one hand, literacy is seen as a competence (as opposed to performance), that is, as a cognitive capacity capable of generating numerous specific forms. Educational conceptions of this competence are particularly valuable when they contrast the simple analysis or evaluation of the performance, but they are even more so when they include a social/cultural component within the very heart of the idea of competence - in other words, treating literacy as a communicative competence and not solely as one that is simply linguistic or cognitive, that is as a social competence that takes into consideration the cultural and interpersonal context in which it is produced. \n<<<\n\n''p.51'' - Scribner & Cole (1981):\n<<<\n...we perceive literacy as a set of socially organised practices that make use of a system of symbols and of a technology to produce and disseminate it. Literacy is not simply knowing how to read and write a given text but rather the application of this knowledge for specific purposes in specific contexts. The nature of these practices including, of course, its technological aspects will determine the types of abilities associated with literacy.\n<<<\n//(importance of application of knowledge)//\n\n''p.53'' - Difference between an 'internal' mindset (native users) and an 'external' mindset when it comes to technology //(c.f. digital natives vs. digital immigrants)//:\n<<<\nan "external" mindset is the mentality of those who have learnt to use digital technologies as adults and as something completely new, and consequently these subjects have not always understood them perfectly. These same attitudes and mindsets determine the use of technologies in schools, where in the best of cases they are introduced by teachers that have an "external" mindset towards technology and the digital world.\n<<<\n\n''p.55'' - The computer isn't just one medium:\n<<<\nThe computer is a medium but, at the same time, it is a true metamedium which digitally incorporates what were previously separate analogue media. This characteristic is central in order to relate the digital world with what it is not: the computer is capable of processing and representing all kinds of digital information in an integrated manner, something that is quite impossible in the analogue world in which, at most, two media join forces if they share the same physical channel of transmission (e.g. in the way that television integrates audio and video capacities, and printing allows us to bring together written text and images).\n<<<\n\n''p.58'' - Digital literacies present education with a challenge:\n<<<\nDigital literacies are one of the greatest challenges facing education today: in an increasingly digitalised world, the very idea of being competent in the new literate practices is subject, on the one hand, to the tension that exists between the new media and new ways of meaning and communicating, and, on the other, to educational practices that all too often were conceived for a society that has since undergone profound changes.\n<<<\n\n''p.58-9'' - Changes in what we mean by 'literacy':\n<<<\nRethinking literacy in terms of literate practices rather than seeing it solely as learning to read and write, seeing it as a process and not only as a state, and emphasising its multiple character and, above all, its social dimension, are the main changes that have taken place. Digital literacy means, moreover, a new medium, a variety of media, which underlie the practices and which transform them in a hitherto unknown\nway, in a global, intercommunicated context which is also a historical novelty. And this is not only changing our way of relating with technology but it is influencing the way we relate with society itself, and, therefore, transforming our own identities and ways of learning.\n<<<\n

''OECD, //The Curriculum Redefined: schooling for the 21st century// (Paris, 1994)''\n\n''p.195'' - Schools in the 21st century are caught between the fact that:\n<<<\nScience and technology tend to //unify// whereas culture tends to //diversify//.\n<<<\nTherefore...\n<<<\nThe school curriculum will have to represent the best balance between both trends, a wise choice in favour of universalism allowing both unity and difference.\n<<<\n\n''p.196'' - Need to harness the power of the tools available to us as educators:\n<<<\nChildren spend on average 25 per cent more of their time watching television than they spend in the classroom. Television sets, video recorders, radios, and home computers form the most impressive paraphernalia of disseminated instructional opportunities in the modern world.\n<<<\n\n''p.197'' - Schools are not the only places people learn:\n<<<\nTo inform is no longer the school's monopoly not even even its privilege.\n<<<\n\n''p.204'' - Dr Ed Bales:\n<<<\nThe present model of education is preparing students for a society and workplace which no longer exists. The private sector (business) has moved from the industrial model of work to the information age where the strategic resource is knowledge and the energy source is the mind.\n<<<\n\n

''M. Tuman, //Word Perfect: literacy in the computer age// (London, 1992)''\n\n''p.vii'' - Allan Luke - definition of literacy (introduction):\n<<<\nLiteracy is a social technology. That is, literate communities develop varied social, linguistic and cognitive practices with texts. These require the development and use of implements, ranging from plumes and ball point pens to keyboards. the objects and products of such practices and tools are recoverable texts arrayed on tablets, notebooks or other visual displays.\n<<<\n\n''p.viii'' - Allan Luke - debate r.e. computers in education (introduction):\n<<<\nMuch of the current debate on computers and education is built upon technological determinist arguments, often in the form of recycled industrial-era claims about print literacy. Teachers have had to deal with two broad premises about the advent of computer technology: first, the human capital rationale that 'high tech' societies... demand ever higher levels of 'computer literacy' from all; and second, the claim that microchip technology is alternately a threat to traditional print based schooling, and a 'magic bullet' for alleviating many of the longstanding problems of that same system.\n<<<\n\n''p.x'' - Tuman (introduction) - cites Durkheim's claim that major debates about pedagogy are always an indicator of underlying social change.\n\n''p.2'' - Cannot simply define literacy as the 'ability to read and write' as the notions of 'reading' and 'writing' are unstable. Their meanings shift in response to technological change. \n\n''p.5'' - Communications technologies are not important socially until they are consciously developed for a particular purpose:\n<<<\nIt is usually a mistake to assume that a new technology will be used to extend, rather than transform, and existing practice.\n<<<\n(p.6 - e.g. of telephone initially designed to be a one-way transmission device, but now carries two-way voice and data)\n\n\n''p.66'' - Argument for making learning more visual (with help of technology) - Ron Fortune (1989, p.160):\n<<<\nBy developing visual abilities in conjunction with verbal, we may be providing students with a special means of extending their critical thinking and writing abilities more efficiently and more effectively than is possible if we restrict writing instruction to verbal expression alone.\n<<<\n\n''p.89'' - Virtual classrooms transform the traditional notion of 'text' (and therefore 'literacy'). When dealing text on paper the original maintained, even if notes, etc. are added to it. When swapping and annotating are done in electronic formats the clear distinctions between text and commentary become 'less stable'. \n//(c.f. wikis, etc.)//\n\n''p.92'' - There is a //political// element at work in using technology to communicate and collaborate - Handa (1990, p.168):\n<<<\nchoosing to keep a traditional, noncollaborative classroom could mean choosing to run the risk of preventing students from realizing their own power as writers and from challenging the competition, chauvinism, and class structure that have played such a major role in capitalistic societies and academia.\n<<<\n\n''p.93'' - Impossible to consider the notion of technology in education by itself:\n<<<\nAdvocacy of the networked classroom... often cannot be separated from a broader and more thorough-going rejection, not just of teacher-centred instruction, but of print literacy itself and, more often than not, the entire social apparatus it supports.\n<<<\n//(ironically, those trying to get rid of the system are symbols of its success)//\n\n''p.96'' - What is means to be 'knowledgeable' depends on your definition of 'knowledge'. Gere (1987, p.72-3):\n<<<\nKnowledge conceived as socially constructed or generated validates the 'learning' part of collaborative learning because it assumes that interactions of collaborative learning can lead to new knowledge or learning. A fixed and hierarchical view of knowledge, in contrast, assumes that learning can occur only when a designated 'knower' imparts wisdom to those less well informed.\n<<<\n\n''p.120'' - Marx: new modes of production - whether 19th century industrialism or 21st century information management - control most aspects of social life:\n<<<\nIn acquiring new productive forces men change their mode of production; and in changing their mode of production, in changing the way of earning their living, they change all their social relations. The handmill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill, society with teh industrial capitalist.\n<<<\n

''M. Eraut, //Education and the Information Society: a challenge for European policy// (London, 1991)''\n\n''p.4'' - No unequivocal meaning for 'information society' - expression has three main meanings:\n<<<\n1. The quantity and rate of distribution of information by all the media with the emphasis on its diffuseness and rapid obsolescence.\n2. The quantity of information classifiable, usable and analysable by the new computer technologies, with the emphasis on the theoretical potential of the information and the need for making it more accessible.\n3. The central role played by knowledge, particularly knowledge with a well-defined purpose in modern society; knowledge is seen as an important factor in productivity.\n<<<\n\n''p.8'' - Representative of Cyprus at a meeting of the Council of Europe:\n<<<\nThe explosion of information... has had many consequences, such as: contraction of the traditional culture and prevalence of the scientific-technological one; the questioning of authority and enormous change in human relations within the family, the school and the place of work; change of mentality and ways of life, and the enormous change in young people's values. The information provided by the mass media on the life styles and values of young people in other countries undermines existing models of conduct and behaviour and at the same time fails to provide a new model.\n<<<\n\n''p.13'' - Gradual development of an information society gives rise to a number of tensions that need to be resolved:\n<<<\n#The tensions between past and future, i.e. between traditional culture and new habits and attitudes.\n#The tension between preparing pupils as citizens who will contribute to creating the future and qualifying them for future employment according to externally determined predictions of need.\n#The tension between the formal curriculum of the school and the 'informal curriculum' available outside it.\n#The tensions between teaching pupils about NICT and making the use of NICT part of school life.\n#The tension between responding to vociferous demands from pupils and parents and ensuring equality of access for all pupils.\n<<<\n//(NICT = New Information Communication Technologies)//\n\n''p.14'' - Representative of Austria at a meeting of the Council of Europe:\n<<<\nIn future, every pupil must receive fundamental training in information technology. Such training, however, should not turn pupils into specialists in the field of basic computer technology; rather, they should be helped to recognize that information technology increasingly fulfils the function of a fundamental discipline necessary for other disciplines and subjects.\n<<<\n//(It's a __literacy__ then, right?)//\n\n''p.27'' - Essential elements of computer literacy:\n<<<\n#Some knowledge and understanding of computers and their technology.\n#The ability to use a few standard types of software.\n#Some knowledge of computer applications and their use in a variety of contexts.\n#Some knowledge and understanding of the current and future impact of computers upon society.\n#The ability to write some simple computer programs.\n<<<\n//(I'd certainly question a few of these!)//\n\n''p.85'' - Francis Balle: we have moved to an //informatics// - an //information-processing// - society.\n\n''p.89'' - Technology is not inevitable - Francis Balle:\n<<<\nCars have become indispensable because half a century ago we 'decided' that our economy was to be based on the automobile. Everything indicates that the computer will follow the same progression: from an object acquired to satisfy man's desire for technological novelty, it will become a fundamental need of the citizen, something he or she cannot imagine doing without unless there is a radical change of civilization.\n<<<\n\n''p.94'' - Francis Balle: technology is neutral:\n<<\nTechnology is ambivalent it enslaves and emancipates at the same time.\n<<<\n

''D. Barton & M. Hamilton, 'Literacy Practices' (in Barton, D., Hamilton, M. & Ivanic, R. (eds.), //Situated Literacies: reading and writing in context//, London, 2000)''\n\n''p.8'' - Figure 1.1 - definitions of literacy:\n<<<\n*Literacy is best understood as a set of social practices; these can be inferred from events which are mediated by written texts.\n*There are different literacies associated with different domains of life.\n*Literacy practices are patterned by social institutions and power relationships, and some literacies are more dominant, visible and influential than others.\n*Literacy practices are purposeful and embedded in broader social goals and cultural practices.\n*Literacy is historically situated.\n*Literacy practices change and new ones are frequently acquired through processes of informal learning and sense making.\n<<<\n\n''p.11-12'' - Literacies are situated within domains:\n<<<\nDomains are structured, patterned contexts within which literacy is used and learned. Activities within these domains are not accidental or randomly varying: there are particular configurations of literacy practices and there are regular ways in which people act in many literacy events in particular contexts. Various institutions support and structure activities in particular domains of life. These include family, religion and education, which are all social institutions. Some of these institutions are more formally structured than others, with explicit rules for procedures, documentation and legal penalties for infringement, whilst others are regulated by the pressure of social conventions and attitudes \n<<<\n//(this leads to notions of self-identity, etc.)//\n\n''p.13'' - Literacy is culturally constructed and historically situated:\n<<<\nTo understand contemporary literacy it is necessary to document the ways in which //literacy is historically situated//: literacy practices are as fluid, dynamic and changing as the lives and societies of which they are a part. We need a historical approach for an understanding of the ideology, culture and traditions on which current practices are based. The influences of one hundred years of compulsory schooling in Britain, or several centuries of organised religion, can be identified in the same way as influences from the past decade can be identified.\n<<<\n\n

''Roszak, T., //The Cult of Information: the folklore of computers and the true art of thinking// (Cambridge, 1986)''\n\n//(remember that he's talking pre-WWW)//\n\n''p.ix-x'' - Technology has been inextricably linked in the public mind to information:\n<<<\nInformation has taken on the quality of that impalpable, invisible, but plaudit-winning silk from which the emperor's ethereal gown was supposedly spun. The word has received ambitious, global definitions that make it all good things to all people.\n<<<\n\n''p.22'' - Information is not the same as knowledge, even though some assume it to be. John Naisbett, //Megatrends//:\n<<<\nwe now mass-produce information the way we used to mass-produce cars. In the information society, we have systematized the production of knowledge and amplified our brain-power. To use an industrial metaphor, we now massproduce knowledge and this knowledge is the driving force of our economy.\n<<<\n//(this is probably why people talk of 'knowledge societies' now, rather than 'information societies)//\n\n''p.49'' - quotes the 'creator of a British computer literacy program':\n<<<\nin the future, our children will be thinking in ways that we can't even envision at the moment. The computer is providing them with an intellectual tool that they can drive and control to achieve mental feats which we would probably consider absurd - if we knew what they were likely to be!\n<<<\n\n''p.51'' - Joseph Weizenbaum of MIT - the computer is 'a solution in search of problems'\n\n''p.156'' - quotes Mr Gradgrind in //Hard Times// by Charles Dickens:\n<<<\nFacts alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out everything else. you can only form the minds of reasoning animals upon Facts: nothing else will ever be of any service to them.\n<<<\n\n''p.161'' = quotes John Naisbett's //Megatrends//:\n<<<\nThe new power is not money in the hands of the few, but information in the hands of the many.\n<<<\n//(c.f. Web 2.0?)//\n\n\n

''Tony Blair (1999) - the purpose of schools must change:''\n<<<\nEducation is critical to both the economic and the social, and the implications are profound. For the nation as a whole, it means shifting from a low skill average to a high skill average - or as I put it, excellence for the many, not just the few. The wider purpose of schools must also change, in a society where rights and duties need to be justified and accepted, not inherited and imposed. Yet most important of all is the implication for the type of education we need. On the one hand, universal competence in the basic skills, including ICT. On the other, diversity with excellence - an education meeting the full range of individual needs beyond the basics, both the innate abilities too often neglected at present, and the specific training and skills suited to people's aptitudes, which requires a far more flexible system of secondary and post-16 education.\n<<<\n(Romanes Lecture at Oxford, 2 December 1999 - http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page1465.asp)\n\n\n''Is personalising learning and the use of ICT all about cost at the end of the day? Tony Blair (1999):''\n<<<\nWe are the beginning of the end of an era of education - an era where the issue for most part was how to achieve the maximum amount of learning within limited teaching resources. Entering the 21st century with the new technology, our goal is to become 'learning bound' not 'teacher bound' - not to replace teachers, but to enhance and supplement them - in and out of school - with the vast interactive resources of ICT. It has been estimated that the full cost of one school teacher-hour is £50 and, rightly for our teachers, it is rising; but the full cost of one school ICT-hour is about 75p, and dropping at 20% year, at the same time as the inherent capability of the technology is rising. And as it rises, in the hands of skilled teachers as learning managers, so too does the capacity for ICT to personalise learning - to provide the tailored support for different aptitudes and needs which is critical to the future. This is one of the most exciting and important implications of ICT.\n<<<\n(Romanes Lecture at Oxford, 2 December 1999 - http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page1465.asp)\n\n\n

''P. Gilster, //Digital Literacy// (New York, 1997)''\n\n__''Introduction''__\n\n''p.ix'' - Technology intimidating because we aren't familiar with it:\n<<<\nIf this technology is intimidating, it's because we think in terms of models that are based on older forms of media. We're used to television and radio... Both call for a passive approach from their audience; we put ourselves in front of a receiver and absorb the content offered by networks and local stations. Where the Internet model diverges is that it places greater responsibility in the hands of the individual. Rather than being spectators - information consumers - we become Internet //users//, people who discover and evaluate content before deciding how to put it to work.\n<<<\n//(i.e. we're content __creators__)//\n\n''p.x'' - Content on the Internet is a combination of different media:\n<<<\nIn a sense, we're all experimenting when we used the Internet, because there has never been anything like it before... Content on the Internet is not a static thing. Instead, it is fully interactive. The Internet requires that we understand it as a combination of all the traditional forms of media, and several other forms that change the way we seek out information.\n<<<\n//(does this mean it takes a combination of different literacies to understand it?)//\n\n''p.xii'' - Need for users to be critical users of information/knowledge:\n<<<\nSo we needn't see the Net as a single thing; it's unique nature is shown by the manifold changes it rings on old themes... Misinformation - and disinformation - breeds as easily as creativity in the fever-swamp of personal publishing... It will take all the critical skills users can muster to separate truth from fiction.\n<<<\n//(this is an important point - personal publishing means that there is no peer review, no filtering, etc. Therefore need for critical skills perhaps not taught explicitly previously)//\n\n\n__''Chapter 1 - Literacy for the Internet Age''__\n\n''p.1'' - 'Digital literacy' should be easy to pin down:\n<<<\nThe great physicist Ernest Rutherford, frustrated by the self-important airs of his peers, once told a colleague that a scientist who couldn't explain his theories to a barmaid didn't really understand them. An idea, in other words, should correspond to a recognizable reality, explainable to an audience larger than a handful of specialists. ''Digital literacy - the ability to access networked computer resources and use them - is such a concept.'' It is necessary knowledge because the Internet has grown from a scientist's tool to a worldwide publishing and research medium open to anyone with a computer and modem.\n<<<\n//(my emphasis: interesting definition of digital literacy - it is too broad, too simplistic?)//\n\n''p.1-2'' - Another definition of 'digital literacy':\n<<<\n''Digital literacy is the ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computers.'' The concept of literacy goes beyond simply being able to read; it has always meant the ability to read with meaning, and to understand. It is the fundamental act of cognition. Digital literacy likewise extends the boundaries of definition. It is cognition of what you see on teh computer screen when you use the networked medium. ''It places demands upon you that were always present, though less visible, in the analog media of newspaper and TV.'' At the same time, it conjures up a new set of challenges that require you to approach networked computers without preconceptions. Not only must you acquire the skill of finding things, you must also acquire the ability to use these things in your life.\n<<<\n//(emphasis mine: I'm not sure that I agree with this)//\n\n''p.2'' - 'Digital literacy' = acquiring core competencies:\n<<<\n''Acquiring digital literacy for Internet use involves mastering a set of core competencies.'' The most essential of these is the ability to make informed judgments about what you find on-line, for unlike conventional media, much of the Net is unfiltered by editors and open to the contributions of all.\n<<<\n//(what about peer review and filtering by networked communities? - c.f. Wikipedia, etc.)//\n\n''p.3'' - Other competencies dependent upon critical thinking:\n<<<\nOther competencies branch inevitably from your ability to think critically. You will have to target your reading using the model of the electronic word - hypertext and its cousin hypermedia, the linking of the individual noun or phrase to supporting text or other forms of media. Sequential reading is supported by nonlinear jumps to alternative idea caches, with inevitable repercussions for comprehension. The journey through text becomes enriched with choices. ''Consequently, you need to learn how to assemble this knowledge; that is, build a reliable information horde from diverse sources. You must choose an environment within which to work and customize it with Internet tools.''\n<<<\n//(my emphasis: critical thinking is nothing new, so I don't think this can be at the heart of digital literacy - otherwise it doesn't really mean anything)//\n\n''p.3-4'' - Digital literacy skills currently an adjunct, but will become essential in future:\n<<<\n...the powerful changes in media now occurring throughout the planet argue for a future in which digital literacy is essential.\n<<<\n\n''p.17'' - Always winners and losers with societal shifts when technology introduced on a mass-scale:\n<<<\nNeil Postman calls technology a Faustian bargain, noting that the tools we absorb in our culture are those that cut a broad swath through previously held beliefs. The printing press opened Europe to powerful currents of dissent, fostered by dogmatists intent on overturning the perceived abuses of the Catholic Church; ironically, its quick adoption by the defenders of Martin Luther played precisely against the hope of its creator, Johannes Gutenberg, that it would serve as a means of spreading Catholic orthodoxy. Build the printing press and you get individualism, dissent, upheaval, a breakdown in the medieval social order. But you also get widespread literacy and a sharp upswing in the notion of democracy.\n<<<\n//(this comparison of the Internet and the printing press is an interesting and important one))//\n\n''p.20'' - Sven Birkerts, //The Gutenberg Elegies: the fate of reading in an electronic age// (Boston, 1994), p.156 - [[cited by 228|http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&cites=587761041157802440]]:\n<<<\nThe earlier historical transition from orality to script - a transition greeted with considerable alarm by Socrates and his followers - changed the rules of intellectual procedure completely. Written texts could be transmitted, studied, and annotated; knowledge itself could rear itself upon a stable base. And the shift from script to mechanical type and the consequent spread of literacy among the laity is said by many to have made the Enlightenment possible. Yet now it is computers, in one sense the very apotheosis of applied rationality, that are destabilizing the authority of the printed word and returning us, although at a different part of the spiral, to the process orientation that characterized oral cultures.\n<<<\n//(the medium is as important as the message? - c.f. Marshall McLuhan)//\n\n''p.22'' - Max Frisch, //Homo Faber// (San Diego, 1994) - technology is:\n<<<\n...the knack of so arranging the world that we don't have to experience it.\n<<<\n//(it depends, of course, what you mean by 'reality', 'the world' and 'true experience'...)//\n\n''p.25'' - In late Roman times, books started to appear. Meant pages could be turned rather than having to roll and unroll papyrus. This made cross-referencing easier. One technological change made a conceptual change possible.\n\n\n__''Chapter 2 - The Nature of Digital Literacy''__\n\n''p.28-9'' - Breaking down 'digital literacy' into its components:\n<<<\nBut what exactly is the digital literacy envelope that encompasses these competencies? We know what //literacy// means; it stands for the ability to use language it its written form... In contrast, although computers work their own languages... digital literacy doesn't mean we have to become programmers or learn to puzzle out long lines of computer code. ''It refers to a way of reading and understanding information that differs from what we do when we sit down to read a book or a newspaper. The differences are inherent in the medium itself, and digital literacy involves mastering them.''\n<<<\n//(emphasis mine: this is all very wishy-washy...)//\n\n''p.31'' - Digital literacy is partly about connecting with other people:\n<<<\nSo literacy in the digital age - digital literacy - is partly about awareness of other people and our expanded ability to contact them to discuss issues and get help.\n<<<\n//(I think this is fundamental - the idea of __audience__ and the immediacy of the Internet)//\n\n''p.33'' - Digital literacy also involves being able to formulate questions/search terms:\n<<<\nA digital read on literacy also involves being able to understand a problem and develop a set of questions that will solve that information need. The problem will be solved using search methods that allow you to access information sources on the Internet and evaluate them.\n<<<\n//(are these things that Gilster is listing actually dependent on things being __digital__ in any way?)//\n\n''p.34'' - Digital literacy is about //creating// content as well as consuming it:\n<<<\nDigital literacy is emphatically twin-edged. The Internet provides us with new capabilities for using older media, but it also //creates// content, and that content is interactive and demanding.\n<<<\n//(again, 'creating content' is hardly dependent upon a digital environment...)//\n\n''p.35'' - Digital literacy = traditional content-creation and consumption + 'networked' problem-solving skills:\n<<<\nDigital literacy... is about learning how to back up traditional forms of content with networked, problem-solving tools. But literacy goes beyond developing the skills necessary to use them. ''Digital literacy is likewise about context.'' The Internet is, among other things, a publishing medium... The sense of geographical limitation rapidly disappears.\n<<<\n//(my emphasis: an important point here about literacy depending upon context)//\n\n''p.38'' - The Internet constitutes a paradigm shift in the way that we understand and use information/knowledge:\n<<<\nThe Internet is not a gradual shift in the way we work. Instead, it is an analog-to-digital transformation that will alter the rules of communication.\n<<<\n//(hyperbolic, but true)//\n\n''p.41'' - Internet different in that it engages the user as part of the process:\n<<<\nWhereas traditional media //offer// content, the Internet requires you to //build// content from the huge resources it puts at your disposal.\n<<<\n//(is this __always__ true? I'm sure some people use the Internet fairly passively...)//\n\n''p.42'' - Peter Large, //The Micro Revolution Revisited// (New Jersey, 1984), p.35 - estimates that more new information has been created in last 30 years than in the previous 5,000.\n\n...\n\n__''Chapter 5 - From Hypertext to Context''__\n\n''p.130'' - People who are 'digital literate' are wary about what they read online:\n<<<\n''A key component of digital literacy, then, is wariness.'' Sequential reading allows an author to build an argument, buttressing the case with examples and taking advantage of the arts of persuasion. Hypertextual reading puts the rhetorical arts into an odd tension; the reader, rather than the author, is the one who charts the course through the document. This being the case, the author of hypertext has to consider which routes the reader will be allowed to take.\n<<<\n//(gives example of a website about the Holocaust where every link is to a site which denied it ever happened)//\n\n''p.137-8'' - Hypertext is actually evolutionary rather than revolutionary - the Talmud (collection of rabbinical commentary on the Hebrew Bible) is an example of hypertext at plat as it has marginal notes for cross-referencing. Also, many people use the index at the back of books to do the same thing with paper-based books.\n\n\n__''Chapter 6 - Searching the Virtual Library''__\n\n''p.193'' - 'Real' libraries and virtual libraries serve different purposes:\n<<<\n...the Internet is not a threat to traditional books any more than the airplane is a threat to the automobile. Each provides opportunities for significantly enriching the human experience; each can be a gateway into expanded knowledge and the productive use of information.\n<<<\n//(true, but it might get to the stage where convenience and accessibility is valued over everything else...)//\n\n...\n\n__''Chapter 8 - A Future for the Digitally Literate''__\n\n''p.230'' - Core competencies of digital literacy do not depend upon specific hardware or software:\n<<<\nBut if we can't always keep up with the specifics of Internet change, the core competencies of digital literacy remain viable. ''Technologies shift, but if you remember that knowledge assembly, Internet searching, hypertextual navigation, and content evaluation are all methods rather than specific hardware or software products, you will be able to apply them to the Net of tomorrow.''\n<<<\n//(this presumes that there will be no revolution, just evolution in digital technologies. He does have a point, though - I can figure things out about a piece of hardware and software based on previous experience of things different-but-similar)//\n\n''p.230'' - Digital literacy just an extension of traditional literacy:\n<<<\n...digital literacy is the logical extension of literacy itself, just as hypertext is an extension of the traditional reading experience.\n<<<\n\n''p.255'' - Sven Birkets, //The Gutenberg Elegies// - is something lost when gains are made through using educational technology?\n<<<\nWe might question, too, whether there is not in learning as in physical science a principle of energy conservation. Does a gain in one area depend upon a loss in another. My guess would be that every lateral attainment is purchased with a sacrifice of depth.\n<<<\n//(gives example of a student finding a lot out about the Globe theatre, but not much about Shakespeare's plays)//\n\n''p.258'' - We are disturbed the immediacy of the Internet:\n<<<\nIt's clear that the Internet's very connectivity is what disturbs us, not so much because it reflects an intrusion of technology into our lives, but because it puts us in closer contact with each other, for all the good and bad that entails.\n<<<\n//(c.f. social networking sites like Facebook and forums?)//\n\n

''G. Graham, //The Internet: a philosophical inquiry// (London, 1999)''\n\n''p.16'' - Fundamental question about the Internet:\n<<<\nIs information technology just another tool - more complex and sophisticated, no doubt, but nevertheless not fundamentally different to the flint arrowheads with which people of the Stone Age were enabled to turn from gathering food to hunting it?\n<<<\n//(this is an important point if I am to get a handle on 'digital literacy' - if information technology isn't fundamentally different, then digital literacy is unlikely to be anything radically different to traditional conceptions of literacy)//\n\n''p.25-26'' - Why should we draw a distinction between something that transforms as opposed to extends (like the Internet) - revolution rather than evolution? Motor cars replaced the horse-drawn carriage, which in turn... Why shouldn't we just go back to the wheel and see everything as evolving from that. Graham mentions that the wheel was //fundamental// to everything that came afterward and therefore was completely transformative. It could be argued, therefore, that the Internet is not transformative as it depends on the 'written' word.\n\nHowever, just because the history of something can be cut up into discrete segments it does not follow that this is a seamless evolutionary process.Newton and Darwin worked within a continuous tradition stretching back thousands of years, yet they are picked out as having significant importance.\n\n''p.40'' - Neil Postman offers a test by which we should assess the usefulness of a technological innovation: ''what is the problem to which this is a solution?''\n\n''p.89'' - There is a different quality of experience when going from a book to the Internet:\n<<<\nTo 'find' something on the Internet is not like finding something in the //Encyclopaedia Britannica//. Wherein lies the difference? It lies in the fact that the //Encylopaedia Britannica// has been constructed for a certain purpose, comes from an identifiable source and has a long history by which it has been accredited. None of this is true of the Internet as such, which contains what it contains for every and any purpose and comes from any and every source, identifiable and unidentifiable.\n<<<\n//(to be able to distinguish between these and weigh up the pros and cons may be something to do with 'digital literacy')//\n\n''p.91'' - Internet is a medium:\n<<<\nThe Internet... is not, properly speaking, a source of information at all, but only a medium.\n<<<\n\n

''J. Abbott & T. Ryan, //The Unfinished Revolution: learning, human behaviour, community and political paradox// (2000)''\n\n''p.31'' - Authors quote 'a leading American expert on computer information technology':\n<<<\nIt's not that literacy and numeracy aren't worthy goals, it's simply a fact that they along aren't enough for children to be productive and satisfied citizens and workers in the digital economy.\n<<<\n//(I think this is quite sinister - vocational 'digital' skills for the workplace, as defined by the government, etc.)//\n\n''p.35'' - Tension between behaviourist model of education and needs for 21st century:\n\n__Behaviourist model of educational success__\n#mastery of basic skills\n#largely solitary study\n#generally uninterrupted work\n#concentration on a single subject\n#much written work\n#a high analytical ability\n\n__21st century model of educational success__\n#mastery of basic skills\n#the ability to work with others\n#being able to deal with constant distractions\n#working at different levels across different disciplines\n#using mainly verbal skills\n#problem-solving and decision-making\n\nEducational reform tends to deal only with mastery of basic skills - leaving the other essential skills up to chance.

''G. Claxton, //Wise Up: learning to live the learning life// (1999)''\n\n''p.313'' - Quotation from Royal Society of Arts (RSA) about educational change as a bolt-on:\n<<<\nThe incessant [world-wide] educational reforms of the 1980s and 1990s have simply bolted change on to a system which is essentially a nineteenth-century one, serving the social and cultural norms of that period. That will not do for the knowledge society... The education system must develop in students... the personal skills that will be needed, at much higher levels, to cope successfully with a more complex world characterised by uncertainty... ''There can be no question about the importance of literacy and numeracy [for example]... but they are only a start.''\n<<<\n//(my emphasis: good quotation to use r.e. schools missing the point of digital literacy)//\n\n''p.226'' - Definition of ability:\n<<<\nAbility is person plus the opportunities for assistance which their environment affords, plus their skill at detecting, creating and managing these resources.\n<<<\n//(could literacy therefore be an element of 'ability' - perhaps the 'skill at detecting, creating and managing' resources within a given domain?)//

''P. Dalin & V.D. Rust, //Towards Schooling for the Twenty-First Century// (London, 1996)''\n\n''p.1'' - quotation from planning session of an international meeting to determine the future of teacher education - problem of long-term changes:\n<<<\nWe are confronted with an almost impossible task. There are some of us here today, who are just beginning their careers as instructors at the teacher training college, and at the end of their careers they will be teacher candidates, who will be instructing young children, who will still be active in their own chosen careers in society one century from now, in 1994. We know from past experience how fast our socities have been changing and we must assume that our societies will change just as rapidly in the coming century. It would be wonderful if we knew at least a little about the changes that will take place, so that we can prepare the new generations for the next century.\n<<<\n\n''p.9'' - New technology, therefore new skills needed:\n<<<\nSchools must be able to respond to the pragmatic demands that are increasingly being placed on them. For example, new technology requires students with more education, but it is not reasonable to demand that the young receive more and more conventional schooling to prepare them for the work world, because there is less and less need for people to enter the work force.\n<<<\n//(hence the problem of 'what shall we teach them?')//\n\n''p.9'' - Schools are not guaranteed to be in existence in the future:\n<<<\nIt is no longer certain what role schooling will play in the coming century. The notion of organizing a protected environment where children and youth develop educationally is a relatively new phenomenon in human history.\n<<<\n//(flies in face of assumptions that schools are the best places to learn...)//\n\n\n

''I. Snyder, //Page to Screen: taking literacy into the electronic era// (London, 1998)''\n\n__Intro__\n\n''p.xx'' - Technology changes definitions of 'text':\n<<<\n...technologies offer us new spaces in which to create texts - spaces that are different from those that have preceded them. As a result, we no longer conceive of text as something located exclusively on a page, in a printed book. The new writing spaces include the screen where text is displayed and the electronic memory in which it is stored.\n<<<\n\n''p.xxi'' - New technologies do not mean the end of the old - they simply blur and/or complement one another:\n<<<\nNew introduction of a new technology of writing does not automatically render older ones obsolete. For example, even though printing completely replaced handwriting in book production, it did not spell the end for handwriting. Rather, the boundaries between the two writing technologies blurred... The future of writing is not a linear progression in which new technologies usurp earlier ones. A more likely scenario is that a number of technologies will continue to co-exist, interact, even complement each other.\n<<<\n//(this is a very important point - it's not a black/white distinction, there are shades of grey...)//\n\n''p.xxi'' - Writing cannot be separated from technology:\n<<<\nWriting has never been and can never be separate from technology: indeed, writing and technology are 'ineluctably intertwined' (Aronowitz 1992, p.133) and interdependent\n<<<\n//(perhaps links to Socrates' worry in Plato's dialogues that writing things down will mean the young lose their powers of memory?)//\n\n''p.xxvi'' - Technology creates 'gated communities' - e.g. access to the internet, etc.\n\n\n

''G.E. Hawisher & C.L. Selfe, 'Reflections on computers and composition studies at the century's end' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen//, London, 1998)''\n\n''p.5'' - Word-processing not to do with //quality//:\n<<<\n...just as English professionals no longer ask whether typewriters improve students' writing, many regard the quality question in relation to word processing as wrong-headed.\n<<<\n//(must be the inherent ''usefulness'' of the tool then)//\n\n''p.7'' - The //social// aspect of writing using a computer is often missed:\n<<<\nIn seeking to elucidate the subtle influences of computers in social interactions among students and teachers, the qualitative research (case studies and ethnographies) suggests the importance of the cultural context in shaping writers' work and learning with word processing.\n<<<\n//(this is important as it is something often not understood)//\n\n''p.12'' - Computers can maintain 'stasis' within educational systems by magnifying and reproducing complex social conditions. A conservatism prevails that worries computers will 'dehumanize' the classroom.\n

''G. Kress, 'Visual and verbal modes of representation in electronically mediated communication: the potentials of new forms of text' (in I. Snyder, //Page to Screen//, London, 1998)''\n\n''p.53'' - Common and serious error to treat technology as a 'causal phenomenon in human, social and cultural affairs'. Technologies only flourish because something is both //known// and //possible// - e.g. gunpowder's use in China before 'discovery' in West.\n\n''p.53-4'' - Social conditions make all the difference to technology:\n<<<\nTechnology is socially applied knowledge, and it is social conditions which make the crucial difference in how it is applied.\n<<<\n//(i.e. use of technology in schools is not ''inevitable'')//\n\n''p.55'' - Visualisation is a new form of literacy:\n<<<\nVisualisation is seen as an unproblematic kind of 'translation' from one semiotic mode into another - as a simplistic kind of translation from one language to another. But just as English makes available certain forms of expression which are not available in the very closely related language of German, and vice versa, so also with 'translations' from the verbal (written or spoken to the visual. The sequentially, temporally organised medium of sound is vastly different it its potentials of representation and communication to the simultaneously, spatially organised medium of graphic substance, as expressed in 'lettered representation' in 'literacy'. Each makes possible certain kinds of things, in its particular way, and each prohibits certain things.\n<<<\n//(so 'digital literacy' in terms of having a visual aspect is ''qualitatively'' different?)//\n\n''p.65-66'' - It's not just a shift in technology, it's how we //use// things:\n<<<\nWhereas the old-fashioned book was read from beginning to end, this new book is not //read// at all, it is //used//. The shift here has been from an older organisation of //text// to a newer organisation of //resource//; from an older concern with knowledge, to a newer concern with gathering information to manage a task demanded by, or set, in a unit of work. The book now makes //resources// available.\n<<<\n//(technology shapes us, but it also reflects the way we see the world and the way we interact with things)//\n\n''p.74'' - Semiotic landscape changing because other landscapes changing:\n<<<\nMy argument is that the semiotic landscape is changing in fundamental ways, and that this change relates to other changes in social, cultural, economic and technological domains.\n<<<\n//(So, language would change even without new technologies such as hypertext?)//\n\n''p.75'' - Text-based representations limit human creativity and expression:\n<<<\nOr, to put it provocatively: the single, exclusive, intensive focus on written language has dampened the full development of all kinds of human potentials, in all kinds of respects, cognitively and affectively, in two- and three-dimensional representation.\n<<<\n\n''p.76'' - Means of expression are segregated in Western society:\n<<<\nThe school, in Western societies, says that writing is serious and most highly valued; music is for the aesthetic development of the individual, as it visual art. These structures, pressures, and actions have shaped not only the representational landscape, but also the cognitive and affective potentials of individuals.\n<<<\n-> need to have a more developed understanding of these in the 'electronic age'\n\n''p.78'' - Curricula shape individuals of the future:\n<<<\nCurriculum is a design for the future. The contents and processes put forward in curriculum and in its associated pedagogy are the design for future human dispositions. They provide one set of important means, one important set of resources, for the individual's transformative, shaping action in making him or herself as social humans.\n<<<\n//(i.e. we need to change curricula for the 21st century...)//\n\n

''N.C. Burbules, 'Rhetorics of the Web: hyperreading and critical literacy' (in I. Snyder, //Page to Screen//, London, 1998)''\n\n''p.102'' - Asking whether reading hypertext is similar or different from reading a page in a book is unhelpful:\n<<<\nThis way of framing the question, as a choice between 'new' reading or 'the same' reading, is unhelpful from the start. Reading is a practice, and as such it partakes of the contexts and social relations in which it takes place' significant differences in those contexts and relations alter the practice.\n<<<\n//(e.g. things like speed of reading, concentration span, etc.)//\n\n''p.103'' - Printed texts are selective and exclusive, whereas hypertexts are inclusive (links, etc.)\n\n''p.109'' - Different 'orientations' towards using computers -> e.g. someone whose first experience of computers is playing games, vs. someone taught to use Internet effectively.\n\n''p.117'' - Hyperreading like digital literacy?\n<<<\nJudging links, then, is a crucial part of developing a broader critical orientation to hyperreading: not simply to follow the links laid out for us, but to intepret their meaning and assess their appropriateness.\n<<<\n//(Is this a fundamental part of digital literacy - being able to ''critically engage'' with digitial content?)//\n\n''p.118-9'' - Perhaps students ''do'' need to know how HTML works, the Internet, computers, etc.:\n<<<\nA crucial aspect of developing this capacity for critical hyperreading is, I suggest, to learn about the mechanics of Web design/authoring itself. Just as specialists in other fields (from poetry to acting to political speech writing) can be the sharpest critics of other practitioners because they know the conventions, tricks, and moves that establish a sense of style and elicit particular responses from an audience, so also should hyperreaders (whether or not they actually design/author material for the Web themselves) know what goes into selecting material for a page, making links, organising a cluster of separate pages into a hyperlinked Web site, and so forth. The more that one is aware of //how// this is done, the more one can be aware //that// it was done and that it //could// have been done otherwise.\n<<<\n//(I agree, some knowledge of the technology is needed for a full understanding, but is this really ''digital literacy'', or the next step?)//\n\n

''I. Snyder, 'Beyond the hype: reassessing hypertext' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen//, London, 1998)''\n\n''p.126-7'' - Definition of ''hypertext'':\n<<<\nA hypertext is constructed partly by the writers who create the links, and partly by the reader who decide which threads to follow. Unlike printed texts, which generally compel readers to read in a linear fashion - from left to right and from top to bottom of the page - hypertexts encourage readers to move from one text-chunk to another, rapidly and non-sequentially. Hypertext differs from printed text by offering readers multiple paths through a body of information: it allows them to make their own connections, incorporate their own links, and produce their own meanings. Hypertext consequently blurs the boundaries between readers and writers. These differences help support the view that the use of hypertext affects how we read and write, how we teach reading and writing, and how we define literacy practices.\n<<<\n//(absolutely: if hypertext is this different, it affects what we mean by literacy)//\n\n''p.132'' - 'Technological determinism' = the assumption that 'qualities inherent in the computer medium itself are responsible for changes in social and cultural practices.'\n//(as wrong-headed as saying 'The Pill produced a sexual revolution' or 'Hypertext transforms education')//\n\n''p.135'' - Hypertext needs to be used in different ways by teachers:\n<<<\nHypertext is both a teaching and a learning tool. If teachers are prepared to transfer to students much of the responsibility for accessing, sequencing and deriving meaning from information, hypertext can provide an environment in which explanatory or discovery learning may flourish. Hypertext users participate actively when locating information: students become reader-authors, either by choosing individual paths through linked information, or by adding texts and links to the network. Hypertext systems seem to foster an implicit, incidental and contextual kind of learning, which is widely regarded as more enduring and transferable than direct, explicit teaching.\n<<<\n//(hence the benefits of new media - blogs, wikis & podcasts)//\n\n''p.138'' - Hypertext embodies postmodern theories r.e. text.\n\n''p.139-40'' - No //one// impact of hypertext:\n<<<\nTechnological determinists who predict the social consequences of hypertext tend to rely vulnerably on either a utopian or a dystopian view of the future. But because hypertext can be used for all sorts of purposes, it can both 'liberate' and 'constrain' educational and social practices. It 'can be an enormously liberating innovation or a powerful system of ideological hegemony' (Burbules & Callister, 1996, p.43).\n<<<\n//(wrong, therefore, to have extreme view r.e. impact)//\n\n''p.140'' - Snyder quotes Umberto Eco (1995):\n<<<\nEven if it were true that today visual communication has overwhelmed written communication, the problem is not one of opposing written to visual communication. The problem is rather how to improve both.\n<<<\n//(educators need to think about how they can build upon things that are already happening in the wider world)//\n\n\n

''J.L. Douglas, 'Will the most reflexive relativist please stand up: hypertext, argument and relativism' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen//, London, 1998)''\n\n''p.150'' - Plato in //Phaedrus//:\n<<<\n[O]nce a thing is committed to writing it circulates equally among those who understand the subject and those who have no business with it; a writing cannot distinguish between suitable and unsuitable readers. And if it is ill-treated or unfairly abused it always needs its parent to come to its rescue; it is quite incapable of defending or helping itself.\n<<<\n//(yes, but this is why a multiplicity of views is important)//\n\n''p,160'' - Interesting angle on the difference between standard text and hypertext:\n<<<\nWhen you spin an argument in hypertext, you can choose to represent a world that is strictly 'either/or' or one that is 'and/and/and'.\n<<<\n//(a postmodern multiplicity of views?)//\n\n

''J. Johnson-Eilola, 'Living on the surface: learning in the age of global communication networks' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Page to Screen//: London, 1998)''\n\n''p.186'' - Today's students live in a different world, one that strikes fear into older generations:\n<<<\n...the computer, a device originally constructed to calculate weapons trajectories, is reconstructed and redistributed to provide a fluid, flowing space where users experiment with multiple subjectivities; where stories lose concrete beginnings, middles, and ends; where the rules of games shift, are overwritten, and sometimes even disappear.\n<<<\n-> Foucault: we are 'the pious descendants of time' which means we criticise these spaces/students unfairly.\n\n''p.188-9'' - Feenburg - 'instrumentalist' view -> technologies are instruments for accomplishing predetermined ends (e.g. typewriter for placing letters on a page, etc.)\n\n''p.189'' - Feenburg identifies the 'substantive' view -> holds that in some cases technologies have power over developers and users (e.g. handgun debate in US)\n\n''p.189-90'' - //Instrumentalist// and //Substantive// views popular because each 'works to explain powerful aspects of technology use'. However, in use, technologies are neither neutral nor all-powerful.\n\n''p.203'' - US Labour Secretary Robert Reich (1991) describes a new elite job class of 'symbolic-analytic workers' skilled at 'manipulating, abstracting, and experimenting with information.'\n\n''p.207'' - Feenburg offers a 'critical theory of technology' as opposed to substantive and instrumentalist views -> not possible to identify the negative or positive potentials of a technology outside contextualised uses.\n\n

''R. Smith & P. Curtin, 'Children, computers and life online: education in a cyber-world' (in I. Snyder, //Page to Screen//, London, 1998)''\n\n''p.211'' - Authors believe that children in 1998 are different from 1988:\n<<<\n...children raised in contemporary Australia [1998] are attitudinally and cognitively predisposed to life in general and formal education in particular in ways that make them quite different to children of even a decade ago.\n<<<\n//(I was of that generation, so perhaps could give my take on it...)//\n\n''p.212'' - Boundaries between humans and machines have become blurred which means that children have 'new needs and new capacities' (Green & Bigum, 1993, p.119)\n\n''p.215'' - Older generations that 'excessive computer use' replaces human interaction and can hamper development. However:\n<<<\nOur interpretation of the research is that human communication skills are fundamental to computer use and that interaction is of prime importance in an Internet environment because people are challenged to communicate with others from many 'cultures'.\n<<<\nAlso:\n<<<\nThe assumption that the young are losing out on human interaction possibly reflects the ignorance of an older generation and its inability to accept any form of radical change.\n<<<\n//(absolutely spot on - each generation worries about the younger generation!)//\n\n''p,221-2'' - Saturation in a virtual world is commonplace for younger generations:\n<<<\nIndeed, the very conventionality and mundaneness of their everyday lives disguises the pervasive use of computer-based devices. In an epistemological sense, they are a whole historical period removed from their parents' and most of their teachers' generations. Their interest in print literacy has waned in comparison with that of former generations and their meta-representation or self-structure is generated by a social context in which electronic media is an organisational principle for social life. The children in our sample are better prepared for dealing with computing concepts, the virtual reality world of cyberspace, the Internet and hypertext than their parents are because they have acquired a repetoire of social practices thatlink computer-based artefacts to the structure of self. This behaviour flexibility enables the young to colonise the new electronic environments (Brandon & Hornstein 1986)\n<<<\n//(see if I can tie in the mention of literacy with an article saying that we actually read more now than ever before - just that most of it is digital)//\n\n''p.223'' - By 2010, computer technology will no longer be 'alien', it will be mainstream:\n<<<\nIf we are correct... by about 2010 the techno-cultural understanding and practices of the children described in this chapter will incorporate the whole sociocultural space called adulthood so that there is no computer technology 'alien' phenomenon as such. There will be other discontinuities between generations, to be sure, but in our view the shift to the electronic revolution will have been achieved.\n<<<\n//(we're getting there - c.f. Facebook with people in their 20s/30s - but ''literacy''?)//\n\n''p.227'' - Clark (1992, p.552) - there is no such thing as the 'general idea' of something, there are only many minute particulars which, when fully comprehended, can be referred to in shorthand by a single name.\n//(This could be very important to my thesis - i.e. ''there is no such thing as digital literacy!'')//\n\n''p.227'' - Technology challenges the dominant conception of schools, which is perhaps they tend to be a bit conservative:\n<<<\nSchools seem even more quaint and shaky against the backdrop of technology and the new kinds of capacities and needs demonstrated by the children in our sample.\n<<<\n\n''p.228'' - Younger teachers feel a tension between the 'real' and digital worlds:\n<<<\n...younger teachers, forced into the rigidity of a schooling order that seeks certainty, respond by adopting strategies that rely more on presentation styles like visualisation and performance than on printed text.\n<<<\n//(''I feel this!'' We're focusing on style rather than the substance because we don't have the power (yet) to change things...)//\n\n''p229'' - 'Literacy' is a political issue:\n<<<\nWhat 'communication' and 'literacy' might mean in this social habitat is of considerable political interest... It is widely believed that the ability to read print and the possession of background knowledge that makes reading are meaningful but not sufficient for today's young. The new literacy, referred to by Green (1996) as 'computeracy' or 'computent', contains a vastly different set of capacities. It demands a style of relating to computers and, moreover, the connection of the technology to 'a constellation of cultural associations' (Turkle 1995, p.61)\n<<<\n//(this 'computeracy' is ''digital literacy'' - and is something above and beyond basic definitions of literacy)//\n\n''p.229'' - The reader as author is an element of digital literacy:\n<<<\n...at the core of the new literacy are the notions of a 'soft' style: playing with bits of the program and the tasks at hand, having a relationship with the computer or video game, having a conversation with the work materials, dealing with electronic devices as expressive media (Turkle 1995)\n<<<\n//(Yes, this is the Read/Write web...)//\n\n''p.230'' - Lemke (1993) - we should revise literacy to go back to a pre-literate age of image which would actually move us two seps forward. Literacy would become 'immersed in' and also be a 'by-product' of images.\n\n\n

''C. Beavis, 'Computer games, culture and curriculum' (in I. Snyder, //Page to Screen//, London, 1998)''\n\n''p.238'' - Two major issues which decide how schools change for the future:\n<<<\nAny evaluation of future directions for the curriculum takes place in the larger context of the relationship between schools and society, and the role that schools are called upon to play in the formation and reformation of the community. Central to such debates run two threads: the purposes of schooling; and the relationship between education and culture.\n<<<\n//(Which is why actually every school should be different, and what it means to be 'digitally literate' could vary context-to-context...)//\n\n''p.240'' - 'Literacy' tends to be directed towards 'high culture' which is actually a //minority// culture. //(Aren't schools supposed to be about helping students understand the world around them? Also, cultures are fluid and dynamic, not static!)//\n\n''p.242'' - We need to start from where students are at, which involves a certain element of digital literacy - Buckingham (1993):\n<<<\nIf the curriculum is to equip young people to understand and participate in their society, it must invariably begin by acknowledging the cultural experiences of the majority.\n<<<\n//(links to previous quotation)//\n\n''p.243'' - Lemke (1993) - literacies become obsolete:\n<<<\nThe image of literacy that most of us now have will be obsolete before today's new readers and writers have finished primary school\n<<<\n//(This might be a good quotation to introduce a section?)//\n\n''p.244'' - Difficult to pin down what it means to be 'literate':\n<<<\nJust what it is to be 'literate' in social terms is becoming increasingly complex and elusive. While multimedia and digital technologies are redefining literacy, issues of equity also become more pressing. The new literacies, with their heavy technological emphasis, could well exacerbate existing inequalities in access, currency and power. We know that the links between literacy and power are subtle; they are complicated further by new technologies involving economic and global interests and new technological 'literacy' skills.\n<<<\n//(Hence the OLPC project? Also the quotation about technology creating 'gated communities')//\n\n''p.244'' - Lemke (1997) - at least four new literacies will be required in the age of the new information technologies:\n*multimedia authoring skills\n*multimedia critical analysis\n*cyberspace exploration strategies\n*cyberspace navigation\n//(Could I use these as a starting point to consider digital literacy?)//\n\n\n

''I. Snyder, 'Silicon Literacies' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Silcon Literacies: communication, innovation and education in the electronic age//, London, 2002)''\n\n''p.3'' - Digital literacy = to do with //meaning//:\n<<<\nIn an electronically mediated world, being literate is to do with understanding how the different modalities are combined in complex ways to create meaning. People have to learn to make sense of the iconic systems evident in computer displays - with all the combinations of signs, symbols, pictures, words and sounds. Language is no longer just grammar, lexicon and semantics: language now comprises a wider range of semiotic systems that cut across reading, writing, viewing and speaking (Snyder 2001b; Street 2001). What looks like the same text or multimedia genre on paper or on screen is no functionally the same. It follows different meaning conventions and requires different skills for its successful use. Further, it operates in different social networks for different purposes as part of different human activities (Lemke 1997). Understanding these multimodal texts requires an interdisciplinary range of methods of analysis: linguistic, semiotic, social, cultural, historical and critical.\n<<<\n//(This is a fairly high-falutin but useful definition of 'silicon literacy' or, as I'm going to refer to it, ''digital literacy'')//\n\n''p.3-4'' - There are difficulties in ensuring students are 'literate' for the future:\n<<<\nHowever, preparing the current generation of students to become literate is difficult, not only because it is uncertain what the literacies of the future will be, but also because the task falls to educators who are not fully literate themselves in the use of these new technologies.\n<<<\n//(This is a major difficulty, when teachers themselves don't realise they are illiterate in particular domains - or even worse, think that it's unimportant)//\n\n''p.5-6'' - Literacy is about deciphering and //situating// texts:\n<<<\nLiteracy practices in the age of the new information and communication technologies are highly complex phenomena: they are not just about deciphering texts; they are also about understanding how culturally significant information is coded. \n<<<\n//(This is quite a big ask of digital literacy - are we adding to much to it?)//\n\n''p.8'' - Literacy is no longer something mainly developed in schools:\n<<<\nClearly, educational institutions, clinging to print-based literacy practices, need to rethink the ways in which they function. The print-based industrial model of education needs to be redesigned to take account of the reality that young people are more likely to develop complex literacy repertoires outside educational institutions. Rather than adapting the old ways, the new technologies invited, indeed demand, the conceptualisation of new ways to suit the new conditions.\n<<<\n//(Is ''technology'' driving this? And if so, why are we letting it?)//\n\n''p.11-12'' - ICT is no longer merely just a 'new tool' - needs to be embedded to radically change education:\n<<<\nEducation is at a crossroad. As literacy educators, we have within our power the opportunity to shift our own and our students' beliefs about the new technologies - about the place of the technologies in education as well as their wider cultural importance... It is no longer tenable to dismiss ICTs simply as new tools, using them to do what earlier technologies did, only faster and more efficiently. Such as a response perpetuates acceptance of a limited notion of the technologies' cultural consequences; it overlooks their material bases and the expanding global economic dependence on them. However, when the technologies are recognised as a crucial part of the cultural and communication landscape - indeed, as part of a new communication order - we render a more realistic conception of the technologies' significance and of our own and our students' place in an information and knowledge-based society.\n<<<\n//(Need to understand the ''cultural impact'' of new technology and how it relates to literacy)//\n\n

''C, Abbott, 'Writing the Visual: the use of graphic symbols in onscreen texts' (in I. Snyder, //Silcon Literacies: communication, innovation and education in the electronic age//, London, 2002)''\n\n''p.43'' - ICT has actually //increased// the amount of printed text - Hanon (2000):\n<<<\n[A] great deal of this technology is devoted to the storage, organisation and processing of text... information technology apears to generate a huge amount of ancillary printed material.\n<<<\n//(That's because people are using old paradigms - 'horseless carriage', etc.)//\n\n''p.44'' - Electronic texts are open-ended and don't give young people 'closure':\n<<<\nWebsites differ from books in other ways that just their greater reliance on the image as communication. In particular, they do not offer that sense of completeness and terminus that books normally indicate by their fixed limits, what Bolter has called 'the sense of closure that the codex and printing have fostered' (Bolter 1991: 87)\n<<<\n//(This means students have to be ''co-creators'')//\n\n

''C. Beavis, 'Reading, Writing and Role-playing Computer Games' (in I. Snyder, //Silcon Literacies: communication, innovation and education in the electronic age//, London, 2002)''\n\n''p.47'' - Critics say that a move to digital text is at the expense of rigour:\n<<<\nFears attached to the redefinition of literacy to include visual and digital forms suggest such expansion will lead to the embrace of anything digital at the cost of critical thinking and of values associated with print literature and literacy.\n<<<\n//(But that's because the ''critics themselves'' are not literate in those domains...)//\n\n''p.51'' - Durrant & Green (2000) - need '3D' model of literacy-technology learning, where students engage simultaneously with 'cultural, critical and operational dimensions'.\n\n

''N.C. Burbules, 'The Web as a Rhetorical Place' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Silcon Literacies: communication, innovation and education in the electronic age//, London, 2002)''\n\n''p.83'' - Critical interaction is part of digital literacy:\n<<<\nFinally, I want to suggest, in a very open-ended way, that we conceive of learning in the context of the Web as the achievement of a certain kind of //mobility//: an ability to move within, but also across and even against the pathways that seem to determine users' options for navigation and meaning-making.\n<<<\n//(So being digitally literate involves being ''mobile'' - and perhaps ''agile'' across domains?)//

''J.Y. Douglas, 'Here Even When You're Not: teaching in an Internet degree programme' (in I. Snyder (ed.), //Silcon Literacies: communication, innovation and education in the electronic age//, London, 2002)''\n\n''p.125'' - Robert de Sorbon, founder of the College of the Sorbonne at Paris, just after founding the college in 1257 - quoted in Cobban (1975):\n<<<\n[A]pportion [your] time wisely, listen to all [you] are told, make copious notes, memorise the essential facts, discuss [your] problems with fellow students and finally... pray for success.\n<<<\n//(Which is kind of what we still do...)//\n\n''p.126'' - QWERTY keyboards as they are due to a quirk of technology - metaphor for schools:\n<<<\nWe're stuck with an awkward arrangement of keys solely due to resource limitations skulking around during the typewriter's infancy. So, too, arguably, is the state of our classrooms burdened with a legacy that has nothing to do with ideal configurations of resources or research on optimal learning conditions and everything to do with the interaction between secularised clergy, resource scarcity and the rise of the first great Western universities - and a precedent that, like the QWERTY keyboard, enshrined a briefly useful method of instruction as a central //modus operandi// in education, based on little or no evidence of its efficacy.\n<<<\n//(Great metaphor to use - very clear and to the point)//\n\n

Links, etc. for my students' Vietnam coursework:\n\n''Question 1:'' Explain why the Cold War ended and what problems emerged as a result of it.\n

''Unknown:''\n>The biggest room in the world is the room for improvement.

Donald D. Quinn:\n<<<\nIf a doctor, lawyer, or dentist had 40 people in his office at one time, all of whom had different needs, and some of whom didn't want to be there and were causing trouble, and the doctor, lawyer, or dentist, without assistance, had to treat them all with professional excellence for nine months, then he might have some conception of the classroom teacher's job.\n<<<\n\nHorace Mann:\n<<<\nA teacher who is attempting to teach without inspiring the pupil with a desire to learn is hammering on cold iron. \n<<<\n\nAnonymous:\n<<<\nA good teacher is like a candle: he consumes himself to light the way for others.\n<<<\n//(I disagree with this one!)//\n\nBob Talbert:\n<<<\nGood teachers are costly, but bad teachers cost more.\n<<<\n\nWilliam Arthur Ward:\n<<<\nThe mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher demonstrates. The great teacher inspires. \n<<<\n\nAnonymous:\n<<<\nA teacher's purpose is not to create students in his own image, but to develop students who can create their own image.\n<<<\n\nKarl Menninger:\n<<<\nWhat a teacher is, is more important than what he teaches.\n<<<\n\nAnonymous:\n<<<\nTeaching should be full of ideas rather than stuffed with facts.\n<<<\n\nJohn Cotton Dana:\n<<<\nWho dares to teach must never cease to learn.\n<<<\n\n\n

''E. Bredo, 'Philosophies of Educational Research' (in Green, J.L., et al, //Handbook of Complementary Methods of Education Research//, Washington D.C., 2006)''\n\n''p.4'' - Aaron Pallas - difficult to appeal to common shared fundamental beliefs in education:\n<<<\nExperienced researchers and novices alike find it hard to keep up with the cacophony of diverse epistemologies. Behind the welter of names - positivism, naturalism, post-positivism, relativism, feminist standpoint epistemology, foundationalism, postmodernmism, each with an array of sub-species - lie important questions: Is there a single, absolute truth about educational phenomena, or are there multiple truths (Or is the concept of truth itself so problematic as to be of no value in undertanding the world? Can we count on our senses, or on reason, to distinguish that which is strue about the world from that which is false? Are there methods that can lead us close to understanding, or are there inherent indeterminancies in all methods? Is knowledge of the world discovered, or constructed? Can knowledge of the world be evaluated independent of the scoal and historical contexts in which it exists, or is it always contingent upon, or relative to, particular circumstances?\n<<<\n//(this would be a good opening gambit for my discussion of research methodologies//)\n\n\n''p.4-5''' - 3 approaches to knowing:\n\n*''Externalist:'' the mainstream tradition where "properties of the environment [are] the principal factors explaining the properties of mind, thought or knowledge."\n\n*''Internalist:'' emphasizes the way the internal structure of th emind, culture, or language affects knowledge.\n\n*''Interactionism'' (or ''weak constructvisim''): comes from a dialectical or historicist philosophy such as Hegel or Marx where "thinking alters action, which subsequently affects the external world, thereby affecting one's future sensory input" ('internal' and 'external' factors therefore affect one another)\n\n\n''p.7'' - Nice definition of positivism: a volcano's behaviour may be attributed to the fact it has high 'eruptability' inside it, much as the good school performance of a pupil might be attributed to them having high 'intelligence' inside.\n\n''p.13'' - Educational research tries to formulate universal laws, but not possible:\n<<<\nEducational research, like social science generally, tends to be situated somewhere between the natural sciences and the humanities. It frequently aims at universal laws or generalizations holding for all people in all times and places. Yes because it deals with human behavior, greatly affected by people's varying aims, concepts, social norms and practices, educational research is also allied with the more particularalistic humanities.\n<<<\n//(need to emphasise the fact that 'digital literacy' is a construct - could link to quotation about the future already being here, just unevenly distributed)//\n\n\n''p.15'' - The hermeneutic method:\n<<<\nIn the hermeneutic method on euses an interpretation of a given piece of a "text" (which could be any act or product of an act, such as any utterance or action in a classroom) to help undersand the whole of which it is a part. Hypotheses about the whole help one interpret other parts, which in turn modify one's conception of the whol. Interpretation proceeds in a "hermeneutic circle", using current understanding of the whole to decipher a part, and current understanding of various parts to decipher the whole, working back and forth until a coherent interpretation emerges.\n<<<\n//(this could be a good research methodology to outline in my thesis proposal - author goes on to say it adds rigour as it "creates the challenge to understand all of the interrelated parts of an activity, and not just to sample those that conform to an initial interpretation." In other words, it's like developing an account of the pattern of the whole carpet, not just a particular section)//\n\n\n''p.15-16'' - The hermeneutic method implies there are multiple, correct interpretations of a given 'text'. It also suggests that a given interpretation may be wrong as new facts appear, much like a falsifiable Popperian conclusion in postpositivistic philosophy of science. Hermeneutics focuses on the norms of the community being studied.\n//(this means I could have a tentative conclusion which would reflect the evolving nature of 'digital literacy')//\n\n\n''p.16'' - Max Weber (1993) - importance of 'verstehen' (understanding) in social research - i.e. //empathy// and //intuition//.\n\n\n''p.21'' - William James - knowing is primarily for the sake of action, and action changes what is known:\n<<<\nour thoughts determine our acts, and our action redetermine the previous nature of the world.\n<<<\n//(this could be important for my discussion of digital literacy as the world is mediated to an extent by the tools we use - once we 'know' about, and how to use, different ones, the world changes for us)//\n\n\n

''F.M. Connelly & D.J. Clandinin, 'Narrative Inquiry' (in J.L. Green, et al. (eds.), //Handbook of Complementary Methods in Education Research//, Washington D.C., 2006)''\n\n''p.477'' - Narrative Inquiry = new metholodology (developed since 1990s) - no mention in first edition of //Complementary Methods for Research in Education//.\n<<<\nArguments for the development and use of narrative inquiry come out of a view of human experience in which humans, individually and socially, lead storied lives. People shape their daily lives by stories of who they and others are and as they interpret their past in terms of these stories... Narrative inquiry, the study of experience as a story, then, is first and foremost way of thinking about experience. Narrative inquiry as a methodology entails a view of the phenomena. To use narrative inquiry methodology is to adopt a particular view of experience as phenomena under study.\n<<<\n//(This approach may be useful to get a handle on the difference between print and digital literacies)//\n\n\n''p.478'' - There is much diversity and a lack of accepted criteria for what passes as high-quality narrative inquiry.\n\n\n''p.478'' - Four terms used in narrative inquiry:\n#Living\n#Telling (main part)\n#Retelling\n#Reliving\n\n''p.479-481'' - 3 commonplaces of narrative inquiry:\n*''Temporality'' - "Narrative inquirers do not describe an event, person, or object as such, but rather describe them with a past, a present, and a future... Although for many forms of qualitative inquiry it is important to give an accounting of a person or an event independent of time, this is not the case for narrative inquiry."\n*''Sociality'' - "Narrative inquirers are concerned with personal conditions and, at the same time, with social conditions. By personal conditions we mean the feelings, hopes, desires, aesthetic reactions, and moral dispositions of the person... By social conditions we mean the existential conditions, the environment, surrounding factors and foces, people and otherwise, that form the individual's context."\n*''Place'' - "By place we mean the specific concrete, physical, and topological boundaries of place where the inquiry and events take place... When narrative inquirers write about the relevance of their work for others, they need to acknowledge the qualities of place and the impact of places on the study... Place may change as the inquiry delves into temporality.... A narrative inquirer needs to think through the impact of each place."\n//(this is mainly a empirical method, but it could be used in conjunction with a hermeneutic methodology to look at identity through digital literacies)//\n\n\n''p.485'' - 5 steps to writing a narrative inquiry:\n#Inquirer needs to continue to think narratively - the text should "reflect the temporal unfolding of people, places, and things within the inquiry."\n#The inquirer needs to consider textual form on account of the difference in the shape of lives.\n#Research texts are narrative acts. They are written at a different times, in a different social contexts and for a different purposes. There is no ultimate finality or limiting truth to the particular research texts written.\n#Questions of audience take on particular signifiance in narrative inquiry. There are multiple audiences which should be acknowledged in the way that the narrative inquiry is written.\n#Inquirers need to be aware of the criteria by which their work may be judged, making explicit the "social significance of their work and the larger body of literature to which their inquiry makes a contribution."\n//(these 5 steps may help me justify why I have chosen a particular research methodology)//\n\n\n \n\n

''N.C. Burbules & B.R. Warnick, 'Philosophical Inquiry' (in //Handbook of Complementary Methods in Education Research//, Washington D.C., 2006)''\n\n''p.491'' - 10 things that philosophers do when they are doing the philosophy of education - 10 methods:\n<<<\n#Analyzing a term of concept, showing its multiple uses and meanings, for the primary purpose of clarification.\n#An ideological or a deconstructive critique of a term or concept, identifying internal contradictions or ambiguities in uses of the term and a disclosure of partisan effects the term has had in popular discourses.\n#Exploring the hidden assumptions underlying a particular view or broader school of thought.\n#Sympathetically or critically reviewing a specific argument offered elsewhere.\n#Questioning a particular educational practice or policy.\n#Proposing the ends or purposes education should achieve, either in terms of benefits to the person, to the society, or both.\n#Speculating about alternative systems or practices of education, whether utopian or prgrammatic, that contrast with and challenge conventional educational understandings and practices.\n#A thought experiment, a method that takes an imaginary situation, analyzes it, then gradually modifies one or another element of the situation to determine which features are relevant to changing its pertinent character.\n#Exegetical work: A close reading of a philosophical or literary text with an eye more toward explication and understanding of its complex meanings than analysis or critique.\n#Synthesizing disparate research from philosophy itself or other fields (e.g., political theory, cognitive psychology, sociology, etc.) to find meanings and implications for educational theory and practice.\n<<<\n//(this list may be of use when I come to outline what I'm doing in the methdology section of my thesis proposal)//

''C. Genishi & T. Glupczynski, 'Language and Literacy Research: Multiple Methods and Perspectives' (in J.L. Green, et al. (eds.), //Handbook of Complementary Methods in Education Research//, Washington D.C., 2006)''\n\n''p.658'' - //Sociolinguistic// stance towards language and literacy:\n<<<\nThe 'normal' condition of language is that it varies more than it stays the same across countless situations of use... [L]anguage, like research, is neither neutral nor static; it reverberates over time and across persons (Bakhtin, 1981). It situates us according to race, ethnicity, politics, gender, age, and so on and is what can bind and separate us relationally. Similarly, literacies, rather than literacy, are not static or decontextualized. Individuals make meaning of texts that are multi-modal, not limited to conventional print, drawing instead on diverse symbol systems across countless cultural contexts.\n<<<\n//(the last section on __literacies__ as opposed to __literacy__ is important to understand the importance of visual literacy within 'digital' literacy)//\n\n\n__Further reading from bibliography__\n*Ong, W.J. (1988), //Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the world//\n

''A. Bryman, //Social Research Methods// (Oxford, 2004)''\n\n''p.17'' - Becker (1982) - culture is not a static thing:\n<<<\nPeople create culture continuously... No set of cultural understandings... provides a perfectly applicable solution to any problem people have to solve in the course of their day, and they therefore must remake those solutions, adapt their understandings to the new situation in teh light of what is different about it.\n<<<\n//(I like this quotation as it shows how users of technology are also __creators__)//\n\n